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BARNES'S ONE TERM HISTORY 



BRIEF HISTORY 



OF 



FRANCE 

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A. S. BARNES & CO., 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO, 
1875. 



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" I have already avowed my belief, that to each of the nations 
of the earth belongs, by a Divine decree, the distinctive character 
adapted to the peculiar office assigned to each, in the great and com- 
prehensive system of human affairs. Thus to France was appointed, 
by the Supreme Ruler of mankind, the duty of civilizing and human- 
izing the European world." 

Stephen's Lectures on the History of France. 



Copyrighted, 1875, by A. S. Barnes & Co. 



o 



phsf^s 




HIS work, the second in order of publica- 
tion of the Barnes's Brief History Series, is 
^ prepared upon the same general plan as 
^ the United States History, which has met 



with such marked approval. The peculiar 
features are : the division of the book into 
great historical epochs ; the Summary at 
the close of each dynasty ; the Chronological Review and the 
References for Reading at the end of every epoch ; the 
Geographical Questions at the beginning of each epoch to 
familiarize the pupil with the names and location of the places 
which were to become the scenes of great events ; the collec- 
tion in foot-notes of anecdotes, biographies, and interesting 
facts; the Historical Recreations; the frequent paragraphs 
on the Condition of the Country ; the portraiture of the man- 
ners, customs, and domestic life of the people ; the distinctive 
description of each great battle by giving the pivotal point on 
which its issue turned ; the use of bold, topical headings which 
attract the eye at a glance ; the lists of distinguished persons 
in the different eras ; and finally the linking of events by 
tracing their cause and effect, and thus giving something of 
the philosophy of history. 

The spirit of the modern method of historical study is fully 
recognized ; but great pains has been taken to avoid the 
opposite error of ignoring those great political events and 
characters by which the current of history has been guided. 
Kings, queens, courts, battles and sieges have too largely 
decided the fate of nations and the progress of civilization to 



VI PREFACE. 

be lightly touched upon by one seeking to understand the 
causes of events. In all times past, the lives of a few great 
men have formed the warp of history, while that of the masses 
have been but the filling. 

To prevent frequent repetitions, and also to save space in 
this Series, a careful distribution of topics has been made. 
Thus the Merovingian and Carlovingian dynasties are treated 
quite briefly in this work, as they were Frankish lines, and 
occur again in the "German History." The Crusades and 
Feudalism were general in their causes and effects, and will 
therefore be described more particularly in the " Brief History 
of the World." The numerous naval battles belong more 
naturally to the " English," and the invasions of the Goths 
and Vandals to the " Roman " History. 

Within the brief limits of a Preface it would be impossible 
to enumerate the authors who have been consulted in the 
preparation of this book. On all doubtful points, down to the 
Revolution, Henri Martin, the accepted authority in France, 
has been taken as a standard ; for later dates, Duruy, except 
during the time of Napoleon, where Lanfrey has been followed. 

French history is full of warnings against despotism, an 
aristocracy, the abandonment of religion, the degradation of 
liberty into license, and the danger of an ignorant, excitable 
population. In no other history can the hand of a Divine 
Avenger be more clearly seen in the infliction of fearful national 
punishments. The American youth who cons this story well 
can but draw a lesson of experience to guide him amid the 
perils which so grievously threaten our own national peace. 

Note on Pronunciation. — For the benefit of pupils unacquainted with the 
French language, the pronunciation of proper names is inserted after each, when it 
first occurs. Where words have become Anglicized it does not seem best to disturb 
their conventional pronunciation. In other cases, the proper sounds are indicated as 
nearly as may be. The French nasal . which can only be learned by ear, is repre- 
sented by a small capital n. 



T^££ <)f pQJfTSJW 



EPOCH I. 

ANCIENT GAUL. 



PAGE 

From the Earliest Accounts to the Accession of Clovis, 481 A.D.. . 9 



EPOCH II. 

GAUL UNDER THE GERMANS. 

From the Accession of Clovis, 481 A.D., to the Crowning of Hugh 

Capet, 987 a.d 17 

EPOCH III, 

FEUDAL FRANCE. 

From the Founding of the Capetian Line, 987, to the Invasion of 

Italy by Charles VIII., 1494 36 

EPOCH IV. 

PERIOD OF THE ITALIAN WARS. 

From the Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII., 1494, to the Treaty 

of Cateau-Cambresis and the Death of Henry II., 1559 106 



Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

EPOCH V. 

PERIOD OF THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. 

PAGE 

From the Ascension of Francis II., 1559, to the Edict of Nantes, 

1593 • 125 

EPOCH VI 

THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 

From the Edict of Nantes, 1598, to the Meeting of the States- 
General, 1789 144 

EPOCH VII. 

REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 

From the Meeting of the States-General, 1789, to the Present 

Time 198 

APPENDIX. 

1. Historical Recreations iii 

2. Chronological Tables x 

3. Index xxvi 



Z/3 




PCIENT G^UL 

HE Ancient name of France 
was Gaul. It included the vast territory lying between the 
Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Ocean — a region 
more than a quarter larger than the France of to-day. 

The inhabitants, known to us by the general name of 
Gauls, consisted of several savage tribes chiefly of Celtic 
origin. A social race, they dwelt in villages, by clans, each 
under its family leader. They were fond of dress and showy 

Geographical Questions.— (See maps, Frontispiece, also pp. 73 and 198)— 
Bound Ancient Gaul. (See text above.) Bound Modern France. Where is Pro- 
vence (vOnss') ? Describe the Rhine. Rhone. Meuse (muz). Scheldt. Moselle. 
Locate Marseilles (salz), Aix (aks), Orange, Nismes (n-eem). Aries (arlz), Nice (neess), 
Lyons, Paris, Tours (toor), Poitiers (teerz), Amiens (e-ens), Treves (trav), Cologne, 
Chalons (shal-on), Soissons (swas-s6n, almost swi-soii). 



10 ANCIENT GAUL. 

ornaments. The men wore long, flowing hair. The women 
aided their husbands in council and fought by their sides in 
battle. Enthusiastic in attack, but impatient of reverse, 
loving war for the sake of glory and conquest, excitable 
and demonstrative in everything they did, the Gaul of 2,000 
years ago was the unmistakable ancestor of the present 
Frenchman.* The Gauls were pagans, and worshipped the 
stars, the ocean, and the winds. Their priests were Druids, 
who dwelt in the depths of the forest, and were the deposita- 
ries of all the knowledge, poetry, science, and cultivation of 
the people. 

Emigrations. — For centuries, hordes of these barbarians 
were constantly emigrating with their wives and children 
into other lands. They swarmed over the Pyrenees, and 
there became mingled with the native population. They 
crossed the Alps, and carried fire and sword through Italy 
and Greece, and even into Asia Minor, f They enlisted 
under the banner of any great leader who promised them 
the spoils of victory. "Whoever," says Michelet, "wished 
to buy headlong courage J and blood cheaply, bought them." 

The Conquest by the Romans is the first great fact 
in Gallic history. Marseilles (Massilia), a city founded by 
the Greeks (600 b. a), troubled by unruly neighbors, called 
in the help of the Eomans (154 b. a). They came into Gaul 
often after that. Aix (Aquas Sextise), the first Eoman settle- 

* The young man who became fat was punished lest it might interfere with his 
martial exercises ; and in order to teach promptness, the one who arrived last when 
the army assembled was put to death. " A whole troop of strangers," said the old 
Eoman soldier Ammianus, "could scarce resist a single Gaul in a fight, particularly 
if he were assisted by his stout, blue-eyed wife, who, gnashing her teeth, distending 
her neck, and brandishing her large snowy arms, would deliver blows like bolts 
from the twisted strings of a catapult." 

+ Galatia, memorable by the address of one of St. Paul's Epistles, was named from 
the debris of certain Gallic expeditions. . , 

% "What do you fear?" demanded Alexander of some Gauls whom he met. 
" Only the fall of the heavens," was the reply. " Swaggerers ! " said the con- 
queror, but forthwith took them into his pay. 



122 b. c] 



EOMAI EULE. 



11 




ROMAN ARCH AT ORANGE. 



ment beyond the Alps, was founded 122 b. c. An extensive 
district was soon conquered. Being made a province of the 
empire, this region came to 

be called Provence, by which it__ : ^/ j^ { 

it is still popularly known. -SBBMPllilllliBiB^ 
Its fertile valleys and pic- 
turesque hills, with pleasant, 
sunny slopes, were favorite 
resorts for Roman families of 
distinction.* About 50 B. c, 
Julius Caesar carried the con- 
quering Roman eagle through 
the entire country, f and for 
450 years Gaul was a Roman 
province, governed by Roman laws. 

Effects of the Roman Conquest. — From this dates 
the civilization of the Gauls. It became a point of honor to 
follow Roman customs and to bear Roman names. J The 
clans were broken up, and the people betook themselves to 
agriculture, commerce, the arts and sciences. Lyons, Paris, 
Marseilles, and other cities became centres of learning and 
trade. Roads were built connecting all parts of the country. 
Colleges were established, rivaling the schools of Athens or 
Alexandria. Gaul had her orators, poets, and historians, and 
even furnished teachers of rhetoric to Rome. Gallic citizens 
occupied posts of trust and honor, and were admitted to the 
Roman Senate. The country became filled with Roman 



* Remains of Roman triumphal arches at Aix and Orange, and of the amphithea- 
tres at Aries and Nismes, with gigantic ruins of aqueducts and temples, still exist 
to attest the architectural glories of that time, and to attract the admiration of the 
traveler. 

t Plutarch says that Caesar fought in Gaul against 3,000,000 of men ; one million 
perished, one was enslaved, and one million only remained. 

} One Vercundoridub, for example, changed his name to the smoother Caius Julius, 
and became a priest in the temple of Augustus. 



12 ANCIEKT GAUL. [160 A. D. 

families living in affluence and luxury. A Gallo-Eoman 
population arose, sharing in all the grandeur of the empire. 
Best of all, missionaries, coming from Asia Minor, introduced 
the Christian religion (a. d. 160). Bitter persecutions fol- 
lowed; but the pure doctrines of the new faith took deep 
root, and finally triumphed over pagan superstitions. 

The Decline of the Roman Empire left Gaul more 
helpless than Rome itself. For centuries it was the field of 
battle for rival generals who disputed the empire, v Crushed 
by taxes, drained of money and men, the nobles enervated 
by luxury, and the masses degraded by slavery, there was no 
power to hold back the hordes of northern barbarians which 
had been with difficulty restrained by the Roman legions. 

The Conquest by the Germans, in the fifth century, 
is the second great event in the history of Gaul. Tribes of 
fierce warriors poured across the frontier and swept the land. 
When order was somewhat restored, three Teutonic (Ger- 
man) nations were found established : the Visigoths in the 
south, the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the 
north. 

Invasion of Attila (461). — Battle of Chalons. — In the 
midst of this indescribable tumult Attila, with a half mil- 
lion of Huns, a fierce Scythian race, invaded the country.* 
Everywhere his route was marked by fire and bloodshed.f 

* This savage horde, wild with blood and pillage, bows with superstitious fear 
before one man. With fiery mien and pompous gait he leads the march. A short 
stature, a large chest, an enormous head, small eyes, a thin beard, gray hair, flat 
nose, and tawny skin— such is his portrait. His name is Attila. Leaving to his 
companions the gold and silver vases, spoils of his victories, he eats gross messes 
from wooden dishes. From the stool which he calls his throne he proudly surveys 
his chiefs and boasts : " The generals of emperors are slaves ; the generals of Attila 
are emperors.'" Then, brandishing his sword, "At my approach the stars fall ; the 
earth trembles ; lam the hammer of the universe. Grass ceases to grow where the 
horse of Attila has passed ! " — Mennechet. 

t St. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris, is honored as having saved Paris from 
the Hun. W'hile yet a little peasant girl at Nanterre, eight miles from Paris, Gene- 
vieve attracted the attention of the good Bishop of Auxerre, and received a special 
consecration. Coming, in her womanhood, to the capital, she met with the mingled 



4G1 A. D.] 



CLO VIS. 



13 



Koman and barbarian Gaul combined against this common foe. 
They met on the field of Chalons. Three hundred thousand 
men are said to have perished. So prodigious was the number 
engaged and so great the 
confusion that it was im- 
possible to tell who was 
victor. Finally Attila fled 
and Gaul was saved. 

Triumph of the 
Franks. — Not long after, 
there arose among the 
Salian * Franks CLOVis,f 
a young chieftain of great 
energy. He conquered 
Sya-grius, the last Roman 
governor in Gaul (486), 
and became the founder 
of a Frankish dynasty. 

Power of the 
Church. — Amid the 
wreck of the old Eoman attila. 

government and the de- 
struction of all other forms of order and civilization, the 
Christian Church alone survived. The common people 
learned to look to it as their most powerful defender. ' The 

veneration and contumely which great fervor in good works usually inspires. Attila 
was approaching Paris and the people were preparing to flee. At the height of their 
terror, Genevieve stepped forward. ''Forsake not your homes," she said. " for God 
has heard my prayers. Attila shall retreat." Some believed ; some mocked ; some 
spoke of drowning or stoning the false prophet. But the prediction was fulfilled and 
Paris was saved. She lived sixty years afterward, revered by all. 

* There were two general divisions of the Franks : the Salians, whom we shall 
soon call Neustrians, and the Eipuarians or Australians-, the former between the 
Scheldt and the Meuse, the latter between the Meuse, Moselle, and Rhine. 

+ His name was Hlodowig or Chlodwig, the same as the German Ludwig, the 
French Louis, and the English Lewis, but he is generally known by his Latin name, 
Clovis. 




14 ANCIENT GAUI. [480 a. d. 

bishop was invested with a peculiar sanctity and regarded 
with reverential awe. He redressed grievances, appeased 
tumults, sheltered fugitives, and alleviated miseries. As the 
Visigoths and the Burgundians were Arians,* the clergy 
naturally preferred the Franks, who, though pagans, had no 
prejudices, and might yet be converted, and become "the 
sword of the Church." 

Summary. — The ancient name of France is Gaul. The inhabitants 
are of Celtic origin. They are a nation of warriors, and repeatedly 
devastate other countries. In the second century the Romans settle 
Provence, which becomes a famous resort. Caesar fearfully repays 
the Gauls for their former invasion of Italy, and conquers the entire 
country. The Gauls are made Roman citizens. From this dates their 
civilization. Cities are built. Schools are founded. A Romo-Gallish 
nation springs up. When Rome declines, the helpless Gauls become 
the prey of tyrannical emperors and fierce generals. As hope dies, 
there come the blessed ministrations of the gospel. The Franks, Bur- 
gundians, and Visigoths, repulsed in former times by the Roman 
legions, now burst across the Rhine and take possession of the land. 
Next come the Huns, but they are defeated at Chalons. Amid the 
general wreck the people learn to trust in the Church as their only 
friend. Clovis puts an end to the Roman rule in Gaul and founds the 
first Frankish dynasty. 

Manners and Customs, — In his dress of skins, with- his long, yellow 
hair floating over his shoulders, the ancient tattooed Gaul drank from 
the skull of his enemy, and strangled the stranger wrecked on his coast. 
In forest clearings, beside the rivers, on hill-tops whence the enemy 
could be seen afar, or in retreats in wood or marsh protected by ditches 
and palisades, restless, eager, garrulous, fierce in rivalries and strong 
in clannish instinct, he marks the borders of savage existence. Further 
on, we see him in gay plaided trowsers and short cloak, the latter 
clasped over his shoulder, and glittering with gold and silver embroid- 
ery. Grown sympathetic, hospitable, and curious, he no longer puts 
the chance comer to death, but compels him to tarry and tell all he 
has ever seen' and heard. In his round wattled hut, plastered with 
clay and thatched with straw, he grows into a better civilization as the 
years roll on. His table is well served; he has butter, honey, and 

* The disciples of Arms, a bishop who had been "expelled from the Church for 
rejecting the divinity of Christ. 



ANCIENT GAUL. 



15 




bread leo.vened with beer-foam : his hams and cheeses have gained a 
foreign reputation. Fond to excess of glitter and parade, his improve- 
ments often seek that form. He finds out brilliant dyes, prepares cos- 
metics, plates one metal with another, and veneers with precious woods. 
He walks on a carpet of his own manufacture, sleeps on a mattress 
stuffed with wool, and drinks from a German silver cup the wine he 
preserves in a wooden 
cask. The Southern Gaul 
leads the advance, ab- 
sorbing Greek and Ro- 
man polish. The Gallo- 
Roman city gentleman 
at last becomes a model 
of sumptuous and idle 
indulgence. The morn- 
ing reception, the bustle 
of the forum, and the 
luxurious siesta, make 
up the day ; baths, thea- 
tres, gladiatorial sports, 
and prodigal repasts em- 
ploy the evening. His 
elegant saloons glow 
with the gorgeous tapes- 
tries of Persia and Assyria. Reclining on couches draped in richest, 
purple, his guests are served by robust slaves, who bend beneath the 
weight of silver dishes. Flowers, music, perfumes, and graceful 
dancing-girls make the air heavy with sensuous enjoyment. When 
wearied with the pleasures of the town, he seeks his charming country 
villa, nestled at the foot of some olive or vine-clad hill, or superbly 
crowning some mountain adorned with oak and elm. From its stately 
porticoes he watches the flow of the stream or ripple of the lake. One 
part, cool and sequestered, wooes to a summer rest, while the other, 
warmed by artificial heat, has every comfort for the winter home. 
Games and the chase, the theatre and the bath, delight and entertain 
his guests. Libraries and museums please their soberer moods, and 
delicious retreats, sacraria, shut each one up at will to his own reve- 
ries. Meantime, the ladies spin and read and gossip in their own 
luxurious apartments. The grand repast, as in the city home, rounds 
out and closes up the day. 

Such is the picture which the records give. They reveal nothing of 
the every-day life of the serf — bought and sold with the soil ; of the 
small farmers, whose condition was even less tolerable by reason of 
heavy taxes and the competition of large estates ; of the artisan and 



GALLO-ROMAN COSTUMES. 



(From Bas-reliefs discovered under Notre Dame in 1711.) 



16 ANCIENT GAUL. 

mechanic, whose wages and profits were governed by laws so oppress- 
ive that he fled for refuge into slavery, only to be hunted, captured, 
and rebound to his deserted trade ; or of the Ctirial — city magistrate — 
whose office, one of the highest in the land, was burdened with such 
odious responsibilities that the unhappy men on whom it fell made 
themselves bondsmen, married slave-women, or joined barbaric hordes, 
in hope of escape — fleeing their homes as the workman did his trade, 
like him to be pursued and forced to return. 



Iiefere7ices for (Reading. 

Caesar's Commentaries.— Napoleon 's Life of Ccesar.— Creasy' 's Fifteen Decisive, Bat- 
tles of the World.— Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.— Sheppard' 's Fall 
of Home and Rise of the Nationalities.— Hallam's Middle Ages.— Godwin's, White's, 
Smith's, Sismondi's, Michelet's, Bonnechose's, Markham's, Crowe's, Kitchin's, and 
Edwards's Histories of France.— Thierry's History of the Gauls.— Guizot's Popular 
History of France.— Motley's Rise of tlie Dutch Republic (Int. Characteristics of Gauls 
and Celts).— Russell's History of Ancient Europe.— Ritson's Memoirs of the Celts. — 
Perry's The Franks. — Milman's History of Christianity in the First Three Centuries. 
—Picot, Histoire des Gaulois. — Lestange, Histoire des Gaules et conquetes des Gaulois. 
Martin, Histoire de France— Duruy, Histoire de France. 

Invents of the First I?poch in Chronological Order. 

B. C„ - PAGE 

GOO. Marseilles (Massilia) founded by the Greeks . . . .10 

154. Marseilles called in Roman help 10 

122. Aix (Aquae Sextise) in Provence founded by the Romans 11 

58. Csesar in Gaul 11 

A. D. 

160. Christians settled in Lyons 12 

251. Dionysius founded the Church of Northern France at Paris 

' (Lutetia Parisiorum) -12 

407. German settlements in Gaul began 12 

461. Battle of Chalons. Attila defeated 12 

486. Battle of Soissons. Syagrius defeated . . . . 13 

^Distinguished JVames of Ancient Gaul. 

Vercinf/eiorix, bravest and noblest of the Gauls, and the last to resist the great 
Boman conqueror. Defeated in battle, he gave himself up, hoping to save his people. 
Attired in all his barbaric splendor, he rode into Caesar's camp, dismounted, and 
throwing down his arms, silently awaited his doom. He was taken to Rome to adorn 
the victor's triumph, and afterwards executed. 

SI. Zrenceus (a.d. 130-202), second bishop of Lyons, and a Christian martyr. 

St. Hilary (300-358), bishop of Poitiers, noted for his eloquence and his enmity 
to Arianism. 

St. Jfartm of Tours (360), introduced monasticism into Gaul. 

^2>ollinaris Sidonins (430-438), bishop of Clermont. His songs arc prized for 
their historical information. 



G^UL UNDER THE GERIJPS 



I. THE MEROVINGIAN- LINE. 
481 to 752=271 Years. 




LOVIS (481 to 511=30 years) had'a 
Christian wife. In the midst of a 
great battle, when the day seemed 
lost, he suddenly invoked the God 
of Clotilda, vowing, if victorious, to 
adopt her faith. He won the day, 
and, with three thousand of his men, 
w T as afterward baptized at Eheims f 
(496). "Burn that which thou 
hast worshipped, and worship that 
which thou hast burned," said the 

bishop. Clovis obeyed. Henceforth the whole power of the 

Church was enlisted on his side. 
Conquests of the Franks. — The northern cities, as 

far as the Loire, opened their gates to his soldiers. The 

Geor/rrrjjhical Questions.- <See map, pp. .)— Locate Austrasia. Neus- 

t-ria (nois). Septimania. Aquitaine (ak-we-tane). Brittany. Normandy. Testry. 
Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-peF). Ger., Aachen (a-ken). Colmar. Eheims (reemz). 
Rouen (roo-en). Ingelheim. Fontenay. Verdun (ver'dun'). Strasburg. Describe 
the Loire (lwar). Garonne. Vienne. Danube. Seine (san). Where is the German 
Ocean ? Adriatic ? 

* So called from Merovich or Merowing, the grandfather of Clovis, who was the 
leader of the Franks at the battle of Chalons. 

t From this fact Rhcims became the place for the coronation of all the French 
kimrs. 



18 GERMAN GAUL. [500 A.D. 

Catholic bishops in Burgundy chafing under Arian rule, 
Clovis subdued the Burgundian king, forced him to respect 
the rights of his Catholic subjects, and exacted an annual 
tribute to himself. " It grieves me," said Clovis, " to see the 
misbelieving Visigoths in possession of the fairest province of 
Caul. Let us march." The Franks gladly responding to 
the chance for spoil, they crossed the Loire, and rapidly pur- 
sued their conquests to the source of the Garonne. On his 
return Clovis received from Anastasius, emperor of the East, 
a golden crown and the purple robes of a consul. This gave 
great sanction to his authority among his Gallo-Roman sub- 
jects. In him the Eoman empire seemed to live again. He 
was no longer a barbarian chief, but an orthodox prince and 
a consul of Rome. Before his death he had united under the 
Frankish power the entire country between the Rhine, the 
Rhone, the ocean, and the Pyrenees, and had fixed his resi- 
dence at Paris* 

Successors of Clovis. — The kingdom was now divided, 
according to Frankish custom, among the four sons of Clovis. 
There is little need to dwell upon their character or that of 
the remaining kings of the Merovingian line. " Nowhere," 
says Gibbon, "can we find more vice or less virtue." Clotaire, 
the fourth son of Clovis (see Table in Appendix), murdered 
two of his nephews with his own hand, and condemned his 
rebellious son to be burned alive, with his wife and daughters. 
Fredegonde and Brunehaut (bruH-ho), daughters-in-law of 

* The following anecdote illustrates the rude manner of government among the 
Frankish kings. At a division of spoil at Soissons, Clovis asked for himself a val- 
uable consecrated vase, which the soldiers had taken from a church in Eheims, and 
which he wished to return. All consented hut one, who shattered the vase with a 
violent blow of his battle-axe, saying, " Never shalt thou have more than thy allotted 
share. 11 Clovis held his peace. The next year, at a review of his troops, taking this 
man's weapon, he threw it on the ground, with a reproof for not keeping it in better 
order. As the soldier stooped to raise it, Clovis lifted his own battle-axe, and bury- 
ing it in the skull of the unfortunate offender, exclaimed: "Thus didst thou cleave 
the vase at Soissons. 11 




613A.D.] MEB.OVINGIAN KINGS. 19 

Olotaire, have acquired an awful celebrity by their crimes. 
The melancholy fate of Brunehaut,* who, in her old age, 
was tied to the heels of a wild horse, and torn, dragged, and 
stamped to pieces, excites a momentary pity. 

Dagoherl, Fredegonde's grandson, murdered his brother, and 
thus became sole monarch. He gained the good-will of his 
people by his royal progresses through the kingdom, in which 
he personally dispensed justice. In him — the Louis XIV. of 
the seventh century — the Merovingian line culminated, and 
at his death (638) fell to dust. Mental imbecility, which 
grows out of moral degeneracy, reduced the race of Clovis 
to a weak line of princes, who pass like a procession of pup- 
pets across the stage of history. The remaining 
monarchs of the dynasty are known as rois faine- 
ants — the do-nothing kings. 

Austrasia and Neustria. — During this time 
the Salians came to be called Neustrians, and the 
Ripuarians Austrasians. The general division be- 
tween the two was the River Meuse. In Austra- 
sia the German population and German habits 
predominated. Their chiefs, upon whom Clovis 
had conferred large estates, possessed great power, 
which rendered them comparatively independent dagobert's 
of the sovereign. In Neustria, on the other hand, 
the Franks were few in number and isolated from their 
fellow-countrymen. Roman civilization and customs here 

* Few characters have been painted in more opposite colors by different writers 
than that of this famous Queen of Austrasia. In the enthusiasm of her partisans, the 
conceded beauty of her person, the romantic incidents of her career, the unlimited 
praise and blame which one alternately meets in searching the old writers for her 
history, and in her tragic death, one is strongly reminded of that unfortunate woman 
of later days, Mary Queen of Scots. While the name of Erunehaut is associated with 
dark and foul crimes, we yet find many great and redeeming qualities. Some of the 
most eminent men of her time, such as St. Gregory the Great, Gregory of Tours, and 
others, speak strongly in her praise. She was a liberal patron of the arts, and her 
munificence and patriotic zeal were attested by many public works and buildings, 
which remained for centuries to perpetuate her memory. 



20 GERM AH GAUL. [G38-782, 

prevailed, and the monarchical feeling, so characteristic of 
Eoman society, was firmly established. 

The Mayors of the Palace, or " Stewards of the royal 
household," took advantage of the weakness of the king to 
usurp all the power. At the battle of Testry (687), the 
Austrasians, under Pepin ( Ger. Pippin), Mayor of the Pal- 
ace, utterly defeated the Neustrians. Henceforth Pepin was, 
in effect, king of the Franks. He successively placed six 
princes on the throne. Once a year he exhibited the mon- 
arch at the grand meeting of the Franks. Alone, sad and 
silent, the descendant of Clovis was paraded to church in a 
cart, drawn, peasant-fashion, by a yoke of oxen. Here, with 
long, floating hair and low-falling beard, he sat on a throne 
of gold, and spoke a few words, which were put in his month 
for the occasion. He was then, with great pomp, conducted 
back to his palace. 

The Success of the Mayors of the palace was the 
triumph of the aristocracy over the monarchy, of the Ger- 
mans over the Eomanized Gauls. " The Franks under Pepin 
and his successors," says Sismondi, " seem to have conquered 
Gaul a second time." 

Invasion of the Saracens.— Battle of Tours (732).— 
The empire of the Franks was now threatened by a more 
terrible enemy than the Huns. The followers of Mahomet 
seemed about to overturn Christianity, and establish a new 
faith at the edge of the sword. They had already crossed the 
Pyrenees, conquered Septimania, and were devastating the 
rich fields of Aquitaine. Everywhere the Orescent had sup- 
planted the Cross. Christian congregations met in terror, 
and no litany was without a prayer for deliverance from the 
infidel. Charles, the son of Pepin, and Mayor of the Palace, 
gathered the Franks, and met the Moslem hosts "between 
Poitiers and Tours." For seven days the two worlds, the two 



MEROVINGIAN" KING 



21 




CHARLES 3UARTEL AT THE BATTLE OF TOURS. 



faiths, stood face to face. Then, in a terrible flood, the fear- 
less riders of the desert, mounted on their Arab steeds, 
poured down upon the army of the Franks. Their wild 
enthusiasm broke in vain against the solid ranks of the 
North. Damascus steel glanced harmless from the iron hel- 
mets, while the heavy battle-axe crashed down with awful 
force upon turbaned heads. In the midst of the carnage 
the men of Aquitaine fell on the Mohammedan rear. Assailed 
on both sides, the Saracens quailed. Charles seized the 
moment and ordered an advance. The Franks bore down 
all opposition. The slaughter lasted till nightfall. Morning 
revealed the empty camp of the enemy, and Europe was 
saved to Christianity. Charles received henceforth the 
name of Martel (the hammer), for the valor with which he 
pounded the Saracens on that memorable day. 



2;i GERMAN GAUL. [732. 

Fall of the Merovingian Line (752). — Pepin the 
Short, son of Charles Martel, wrote to the Pope, asking 
whether he who possessed the power of King ought not to be 
called by that name. Eeceiving a reply in his favor, he sent 
the last phantom monarch, Childeric III., to the seclusion of 
a convent, and was himself lifted on a shield, after the Prank- 
ish, custom, and declared King of the Pranks.* Thus was 
established the second or Carlovingian line. 

Summary. — Clovis and liis wild Frankish followers are converted 
and baptized. The Christian warrior extends his conquests until he is 
acknowledged from the channel to the Mediterranean. His descend- 
ants rule for nearly two and a half centuries. The kings divide their 
inheritance among their sons, each of whom tries to seize the others' 
share. Scenes of cruelty and blood ensue. Two women, Brunehaut 
and Fredegonde, gain an historic immortality through crime. Amid 
this anarchy the philosophic historian sees two races — the Roman and 
the Teutonic, and two principles — the monarchy and the aristocracy, 
contending for the mastery. Mayors of the Palace gain power through 
the weakness of the do-nothing kings. Pepin makes six puppet- 
monarchs in succession, whom he exhibits in public only on state 
occasions. His son, Charles Martel, gains the great victory of Tours 
over the Saracens. His grandson, Pepin the Short, becomes king. 
In him triumphs the German aristocracy, and the second or Carlovin- 
gian dynasty is established. 

^Distinguished Names of the Merovingian HJra. 

Gregory of Tours (544-595), wrote in Latin a history of the Franks up to his 
own day. It is the authority for the events of the early Merovingian reigns. 

St. Columbanus (597), a pious, devoted missionary from Ireland, founded monas- 
teries, taught agriculture, sought to promote peace and purity, and sturdily rebuked 
the vices of the Merovingian courts. 



•* In order to render his person sacred and inviolable, he was anointed with oil 
from a phial which was said to have been sent from heaven for Clovis's baptism. 
This phial, preserved at Rheims as a sacred relic, was used at the coronation of the 
French kings till the time of the Revolution. 



PEPiisr 



IL— THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE. 

(752 to 987=235 Years.) 




EPIN the Short* (752 to 

768 = 16 years), carried on 
long and sanguinary strug- 
gles with the Bretons, f 
Saxons, and Saracens. He 
subdued Septimania; reliev- 
ed Rome from the attacks 
of the Lombards; and con- 
quered Aquitaine. His fame 
has been eclipsed by the 
military glory of his father 
and the imperial grandeur 
of his son,}: yet he inaugurated the system which Charle- 
magne developed, and which possessed most of the charac- 
teristic features of feudal Europe. Pepin made the support 
and advancement of the Church his chief duty, and sum- 
moned the bishops to attend the great councils of the nation. 
Even his wars had a religious aspect. At his decease his 
empire was left to his two sons, Karloman and Karl, — better 
known as Charles the Great, or Charlemagne. Soon after- 

* Though short of stature he possessed great courage and prodigious bodily 
strength. Combats of wild animals were one of the favorite amusements at the 
court of the Frankish kings. Pepin, it is said, was at one of these in which a lion 
contended with a hull ; the latter was being overpowered when the king cried out to 
the lords of the court: "Which of you will dare to separate them ?" No one re- 
sponded. Pepin then sprang into the arena, struck off the heads of both beasts with 
his sword, and flinging the bloody weapon before his astonished courtiers, ex- 
claimed, in a tone of triumph : " There ! Am I not worthy to be your king ? " 

+ This was a tribe driven out of England by the attacks of the Anglo-Saxons. 
Fleeing across the channel, they took possession of the land which, after them, was 
called Brittany. 

$ It was inscribed on Pepin's tomb that he was " father to Charlemagne'.' 1 



24 



GERMAN GAUL. 



[763. 



ward, by the death of his brother, the latter became king of 
the Franks. 

Charlemagne's Reign (768 to 814=46 years), like that 
of his father Pepin, was almost a perpetual Avar. He under- 
took no less than fifty- 
three important military 
expeditions, nearly all 
of which were crowned 
with success. These were 
waged against twelve 
different nations which 
threatened the borders 
of his empire. At their 
conclusion his sceptre 
was acknowledged from 
the German Ocean to 
the Adriatic, and from 
the Channel to the 
Lower Danube. 
Charlemagne Crowned Emperor.— On Christmas Eve, 
in the year 800, while Charlemagne was kneeling before the 
high altar in St. Peter's Church at Eome, the Pope unex- 
pectedly placed on his head an imperial crown,, and hailed 
him Emperor of the Eomans. Henceforth Charlemagne was 
esteemed the successor of the Caesars. He nominated kings 
and pontiffs at his pleasure, and the potentates of the day 
deemed it an honor to be admitted to his presence or to wait 
in his antechamber. 

Government. — Charlemagne sought to establish order 
and unity among the different nations conquered by his 
sword. Great national assemblies, called Champs de Mars, 
were held every spring. In the fall there were councils of 
the lords to advise with the king on measures of importance. 




CHARLEMAGNE. 




SILVER COIN OF CHARLEMAGNE'S TIME. 



763-814] CHARLEMAGNE. 25 

After these meetings Charlemagne issued what were termed 
Capitularies, a medley of decrees, advices, and opinions on 
all subjects, religious, political, social, and domestic. The 
empire was divided into districts, governed by counts. Dele- 
gates (missi dominici) visited each district four times a year, 
administering justice and re- 



dressing grievances. The em- 
peror promoted agriculture, 
arts, and manufactures, and 
gave his personal attention to 
the coining and circulation cf 
money. He was a munificent 
patron of the Church, and the cross accompanied his armies 
everywhere. 

• Love of Learning. — Charlemagne founded libraries and 
schools,* and spared no pains or rewards to gather scientific 
men about his court. Persons were appointed to read to him 
at his meals. He carried about with him writing materials, 
that, at odd moments, he might practice this, in those days, 
rare accomplishment. History offers few more striking spec- 
tacles than that presented by this great monarch, surrounded 
by the princes and princesses of his family and the chief 
officers of his brilliant court, sitting as learners at the feet of 
their Anglo-Saxon teacher, Alcuin (-kwin), in the school of 
the palace at Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Charlemagne's Death. — Shortly before he died he re- 
vised a portion of the Scriptures, comparing the Latin version 

* He sometimes satisfied himself of the progress of the pupils by a personal visit. 
On one of these occasions he addressed them thus : "Because you are rich and are 
the sons of the principal men in my kingdom, you think that your birth and your 
wealth are sufficient for you, and that you stand in no need of these studies which 
would do you so much honor. You only think of dress, play, and pleasure ; but I 
swear to you I attach no estimation to these riches or this nobility which bring you 
so much consideration ; and if you do not quietly repair, by assiduous studies, the 
time you have lost in frivolity, never— no, never — will you obtain anything from 
Charles,' 1 

2 



2G 



GERMAN GAUL 



[768-814. 



C N OE R M A N J^-rJ L Ji 

} s &{ OCEAN ,*~'° ^ ' 
t 1 '-r'SSs or y „*^?» r- 




Boundary of Empire of Churkmagne 
Division of ' < it 

Boundaries of the Seven Kingdoms + 



lnj Treaty of Verdun -f- + -»--( — i — i — i — h-4- 

■j- and and 



EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 



with the original Greek. He was buried in the cathedral 
which he had built at Aix-la-Chapelle, placed sitting on a 
chair, dressed in the imperial robes, with his beloved sword 
by his side, a copy of the Gospels in his hand, and a golden 
crown upon his head. 

The Successors of Charlemagne seem to have in- 
herited only a title from their magnificent ancestor. The 
descendants of Clovis were wicked; those of Charlemagne 
were weak. (See Table in Appendix.) 

Louis and his Sons (814 to 840=26 years). Louis the 
Good-Natured (le Debonnaire), the only son of Charlemagne, 



768-814.] CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS. 27 

succeeded him as emperor. His amiability was lost on his 
wild Frankish warriors while it ruined the discipline of his 
own household. Having divided his kingdom among his 
three sons, he afterward foolishly attempted to provide for a 
fourth, their step-brother, out of their inheritance. This led 
to open warfare. In the hour of peril, when battling his 
three sons, he was deserted by his own army.* Twice was 
he forced to perform public penance, twice shut in a cloister, 
and twice brought out to pacify the deadly quarrels of his 
children. He died in the midst of a campaign against his 
son Louis. 

Battle of Fontenay.— The "Battle of the Brothers' 9 
(841). — The great name of Emperor fell to Lothaire, the 
eldest son. The other brothers, Charles and Louis, refused 
submission to him, and rallied their forces to assert their 
independence. A terrible battle ensued, in which 100,000 
men are said to have perished. The flower of the Franks, 
the descendants of the Teutonic conquerors of Gaul, fell on 
this disastrous day,f and no end was gained.J 

Treaty of Verdun (843). — Afterward the three brothers 
made a peaceful partition of their lands. Louis received the 
territory on the east of the Ehine, comprising the chief part 
of modern Germany, and called East Frankland. To Lo- 
thaire, with the title of Emperor, was assigned Italy and a 
long strip extending across Europe to the North Sea. This 

* The scene of this defection, near Colmar, was long called the "Field of Lies." 
t The Gallo-Romans were considered unworthy to bear arms by the side of their 
Frankish lords. 

X It was soon after this that the famous " Oath of Strasburg" was taken, wherein 
Charles and Louis formally renewed their alliance. Louis first explained the oath 
to his men in the German speech; Charles did the same to his warriors in Franco- 
Eoman, the parent of the present French language. Then Charles, standing before 
the Germans, took oath in their language, while Louis, confronting the Frenchmen, 
took the same oath in the Romance tongue. This incident shows how, already, the 
two nations were becoming distinct in speech. The oaths still remain, and that 
taken by Louis before his brother's troops is the oldest monument of the French 
language. 



28 GERMAN GAUL. [813. 

kingdom took his name, which part of it still keeps.* All of 
old Gaul west of this fell to Charles, and was styled West 
Frankland (in Latin, Francia), whence the name France,! 
and the origin of the French as a distinct nation. Thus the 
grandsons of Charlemagne dismembered the magnificent em- 
pire which had been the work of his life. Three monarchies 
arose from its ruins, henceforth to become more and more 
distinct in language, character, and interests. 

Kings of France (843-987). — France was now sepa- 
rated from Germany, and her monarchs are sometimes styled 
Kings of France rather than Kings of the Franks, though 
they did not themselves assume the name. On the contrary, 
they refused to identify themselves with the people of the 
country, and clung to their Teutonic language, dress, and 
manners. It is not worth while to mark their course, as, 
unable to stem the tide of affairs, they slowly drifted on to 
extinction. (See Table in Appendix.) 

Invasions of the Normans, — During the last days of 
Charlemagne the Danes and Normans had infested the coasts 
of his empire. J In order to repel them he built barks at the 
mouths of all the great rivers. Under his degenerate descend- 
ants the seaboard was left without defence. The northern 
barbarians were quick to take advantage of the opportunity. 
In their light boats they ascended the rivers, burning, plun- 

* Lotharingia (Lorraine) lay thus between the Germanic realm of Louis and the 
Eomance realm of Charles, taking in, doubtless, then, asnoAV, lands of both speeches. 
Placed like an embankment between the two families of Franks, this narrow strip 
has been a debatable land ever since. It was a kingdom which had no principle of 
unity. No tie of language, history, or natural boundaries held together Holland, 
Provence, and the countries between. They, therefore, scon fell apart. Sometimes 
we find Lorraine cut up into several separate kingdoms, and sometimes divided 
between Germany and France. 

+ We shall, for convenience, now use the terms "France" and "French," though 
they are by no means to be accepted in their modern sense. 

% One day, in Southern Gaul, he saw some of these pirate ships approach, and 
burst into tears. Addressing his wondering nobles, he said : " I know these pirates 
cannot harm me ; but I weep for the calamities they will inflict on my posted; y when 
I shall be here no more." 



845.] 



CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS 



29 




NORMAN SHIP (FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY). 



dering, and slaying. When there was no water, or a force 
was raised to resist them, they carried their boats across the 
land, launched them on brooks where their very name was 
before unknown, and spread terror into the heart of the 
kingdom. In 845, they reached Paris, rifled its rich abbeys, 
and even carried away the timbers of which the houses 
Were built. Charles the Bald, despairing of success by arms, 
persuaded them to leave by the payment of seven hundred 
pounds of silver. This made them eager enough to come 
again. At length, after years of torment, Charles the Simple 
proposed to give his daughter in marriage to Rollo, a famous 
leader of the Normans, and offered him a part of Neustria, on 
condition that he should be baptized, embrace the Christian 
faith, and do homage to the crown.* Kollo accepted the 
proposition, and was baptized under the name of Robert. 

* This ceremony was always concluded by the recipients kissing the foot of the 
sovereign. The haughty Kollo refused to do this, and on being told lhat it was 
indispensable, he signed to one of his attendants to do it for him. Either through 



30 



GERMAN GAUL. 



[911 




ROLLO PAYING HOMAGE TO CHARLES THE SIMPLE. 

Effect. — Rollo gave up his predatory habits and protected 
the coasts from any further invasions. He applied himself 
to the development of his province, now called Normandy, 
which soon became one of the most nourishing in the nation. 
Adopting the religion and usages of the French, the Nor- 
mans were soon distinguished as the bravest soldiers, the 
boldest sailors, and the most skilful and tasteful artisans. 
High-minded and patriotic, they took the lead in all daring 
enterprises. Rouen, their capital, became a splendid city, 
while in other places, cathedrals and churches of noble archi- 
tecture arose, which still remain the admiration of the world. 

Hugh the Great,* Count of Paris, obtained the power 

awkwardness or insolence, this man brought the king's foot to his lips with such a 
sudden jerk that the poor monarch lost his balance and fell upon his back. The 
rude Normans uttered loud shouts of laughter, and the simple Charles, terrified by 
thair boisterous mirth, was glad to reseat himself upon his throne, without noticing 
the affront, while his courtiers. were content to pass it off as an agreeable pleasantry. 
* Each of his three wives was a king's daughter. He maybe called the king-maker 
of France, as the Earl of Warwick was of England. 



936.] GERMAN GAUL. 31 

during the last days of the Carlovingian line, as the Mayors 
of the Palace did in those of the Merovingian. Three times 
the crown was at his disposal. On the death of Louis V, the 
do-nothing, Hugh Capet (cap-a/), son of Hugh the Great, 
was elected king. Thus the Carlovingian line ended, and 
the Capetian began. 

Summary. — Pepin is made king by the decision of the Pope, and in 
turn favors the Church. Charlemagne founds a great Christian em- 
pire, and is crowned emperor. His weak successors quickly dissipate 
their vast inheritance. His grandsons fight for supremacy at Fon- 
tenay. The Treaty of "Verdun and a division of the empire follow. 
Modern nationalities begin to appear. Taking advantage of the ab- 
sence of the kings, the fierce Norman Vikings devastate the country. 
Rollo is baptized and founds Normandy. Under a waning dynasty the 
nobles triumph. Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, gains strength and 
becomes the " king-maker " of France. With a do-nothing sovereign 
the Carlovingian line comes to an end. Hugh Capet is crowned, and 
in his success the power of the nobles is assured. The German rule is 
replaced by a national dynasty. Gaul, having received the impress of 
Roman, Teutonic, and Norman influences, has at last a French king. 

The Benedictine Monks established themselves in France during 
the sixth century. Their quiet industry and attention to agriculture 
made gardens out of neglected wastes. The half -civilized Franks 
looked with a species of awe on the luxuriant fields which flourished 
only around the monastery, and grateful kings heaped immunities on 
a people who, having resigned the bustle and the pleasures of the 
world, thus added to its richness and its beauty. " The inequalities 
of race grew less before these missionaries and pioneers of modern 
industry ; liberty seemed to rouse her fainting head within their walls ; 
to labor, to sing, to build, to write — these were their four great tasks. 
The world has few nobler histories than that of the Benedictine Order ; 
few societies have left behind such monuments of ennobled toil." 

Rise of Feudalism. — Portions of his immense domains conquered 
from the Gauls were granted by the king to his followers on the con- 
dition of feudal service.* At first these grants or "benefices," as they 

* The relation was established by certain prescribed ceremonies. 1. Homage. 
2. Fealty. 3. Investiture. In rendering the first the vassal, on bended knees, ungirt 
and bareheaded, placed his joined hands in those of his lord or suzerain, and prom- 
ised to become " his man " from that day forth. Fealty was the sworn promise of 
service. Investiture was the placing in possession of the estate, either actually or 
symbolically by means of some natural object, such as a stone, turf, or branch. The 



32 GEEMAN GAUL. 

were called, were lield only at the royal pleasure, but in time they 
became life-long and then hereditary. The more powerful chieftains, 
however, claimed part of the conquered territory as their own inde- 
pendent right, held not from the king, but of " God and their own good 
swords." Such possessions were called allodial lands. That portion of 
the country which was allowed to remain with its former possessors 
was laid under tribute. Thus Gaul was held, part as independent or 
allodial; part as a benefice by favor of king or chief; and part as trib- 
utary, cultivated by Gallo-Roman rustics. Taking advantage of weak 
kings, the dukes and counts, growing more and more powerful, levied 
troops, coined money, made laws, and administered justice in their own 
domains. In 877 their fiefs were declared hereditary ; henceforth they 
were like independent sovereigns. The weaker allodial proprietors, 
constantly harassed by these lawless neighbors, were glad at last to 
find protection by becoming the vassals of some great lord. 

Condition of Society. — The relations of society were all based on 
feudal ideas and obligations. The aristocracy '• alone formed the nation. 
The villains, or small tenant farmers, held their lands on condition of 
a certain payment to their lords. The masses were serfs, chiefly of 
Gallo-Roman descent, who were bought and sold with the land. They 
possessed nothing of their own. Their time, the fruit of their labor, 
their children even, belonged to their lord. If they incurred his dis- 
pleasure, they could invoke no law in their behalf. In the cities the 
counts exercised an authority quite as galling as that of the nobles on- 
their estates. Tolls and duties were multiplied. The people were 
obliged to maintain their lord and his train whenever he came within 
their walls. Provisions, horses, furniture, carriages, fuel, were carried 
away by force at the caprice of the master or any of his suite, without 
payment or redress of any kind. 

Manners and Customs. — The earliest Frankish invaders tied their 
flaxen hair in a tuft above their foreheads, with the ends falling down 
behind. The face was clean-shaved, with the exception of two long 
mustaches. They wore cloth or leather garments, fitting tightly to the 
limbs and body, and a broad belt, to which they hung their swords. 

vassal was to serve his lord and the lord was to protect his vassal. If the vassal 
failed in his ohligation, his land was forfeited; if the lord failed, he lost his seigni- 
ory. The heneficiaries of king or chieftain conferred smaller grants on their depend- 
ants, who in turn bestowed fiefs on those below. In this way fiefs and sub-fiefs were 
multiplied to such an extent that, toward the close of the ninth century, France was 
enveloped in a complete feudal network, from the liegeman of the king to the lowest 
vassal in the kingdom. 

* They comprised about one million persons, free and noble, who lived on and 
derived their names from about seventy thousand separate fiefs or properties, of 
Avhich three thousand carried titles with them, and at least one hundred were inde- 
pendent sovereignties. 



GEEMAI GAUL. 



33 



But once settled in the land, the Franks soon adopted the Roman 
fashions they had found. One great distinction, however, always 
marked the Merovingian noble — the long and flowing hair. The peo- 
ple wore theirs more or less short, according to the freedom of the 
wearer. Thus, while the hair of the king's son was never cut, the 
head of the serf was completely shaved. No greater insult could be 
offered to a freeman than to touch him with the scissors. The free 
and noble classas swore by their locks, and it was the height of polite- 
noss to pull out a hair and make a gift 
of it. When St. Germer, bishop of Tou- 
louse, visited Clovis, the king thus hon- 
ored him; the courtiers imitated their 
sovereign, and the dolighted prelate 
returned to his home with his hand 
full of hairs, each one a precious com- 
pliment. — The Merovingian court was a 
moving one. The king and his attend- 
ants occupied some one of the royal 
manors, hunting and carousing, till its 
produce was exhausted, and then passed 
on to drain another. Around the king's 
dwelling were grouped those of the offi- 
cers of the palace — his immediate vas- 
sals ; smaller houses were occupied by 
tradesmen — jewellers, weavers, embroid- 
erers, and manufacturers of arms : farm- 
buildings, cow-houses, sheep folds, barns, 
and the cabins of the serfs completed 
the royal capital. Fighting, hunting, 
feasting, and gambling were the favor- 
ite sports. The feasts, to which all 
came armed, often ended in a bloody 
mslee. To correct the bent of their 
unruly guests, some of the better Mero- 
vingian kings were wont to invite bishops, who pronounced a blessing 
on the company, and then recited chapters from the Bible, or sang 
hymns throughout the repast,— With the Carlo vingian dynasty the 
hair was shortened, and, in the ninth century, the fashion came in 
of shaving the head and wearing the cowl. The favorite garment of 
the Carlovingian lady was a long tunic, fastened in at the waist, and 
closed at the wrist. Queens, princesses, and the higher nobility often 
wore two tunics, the outer one shorter and fuller, with flowing sleeves 
just reaching the elbow. About the time of Charlemagne silk stuffs 
were introduced, and costly furs distinguished the upper classes. The 




CARLOVINGIAN COSTUME 
(After au early manuscript.) 



34 GESMAN GAUL, 

great Charles, who was a model of thrift and economy in his domestic 
affairs, frowned upon these new extravagances, and was simple in his 
usual attire. An under-dress of linen, woven by his own daughters ; a 
woollen tunic, with a silken hem, and breeches of the same ; a long 
cloak of blue stuff, shortened at the sides to allow free use of his 
" good sword Joyeuse," which he always wore ; leggings made of 
various-colored bands crossed over one another, and leather shoes, 
completed his daily costume. In winter he added a vest of ermine or 
otter. On occasions of ceremony, however, his dress was magnificent, 
and sparkled with gold and jewels. He dined at twelve with his fam- 
ily, to whom he was tenderly attached. His food was as simple as his 
dress. He restricted himself to four dishes, his favorite one being- 
roast venison, newly killed, and served hot on the spit. The royal 
family were waited upon by the dukes and chiefs of various nations, 
who, in turn, were served by the counts, prefects, and superior court- 
officers. These dined next in order, having for attendants the chiefs 
of the household, who were waited upon and followed by the lower 
servants. By this time it was often midnight, and the last comers had 
to be content with what was left. 

At the close of this epoch the elegant Gallo-Roman villa had given 
place to the gloomy, strong, and massive fortress, whose dark, low 
entrance was carefully guarded. Perched on the jutting edge of 
some high rock, unclean, unwholesome, with little light save from the 
inner court, it was safe from the invader, but comfortless for the in- 
dwell er. Slaves had filled the Gallo-Roman household, but the feudal 
Frank gathered his free and trusty comrades about his hearth and 
spent the night in revelry. These faithful followers of the stalwart 
baron stood guard with him over his herds and crops, or sallied out in 
his train, to make war on his weaker neighbors. Each castle was a 
fortress ; each chieftain a petty monarch ; and each domain a small 
sovereignty. Meanwhile famine and pestilence stalked at noonday 
through the wretched huts of the serf, where misery seemed to have 
touched its lowest depth. 



References for 'Headi7ig. 

French Histories mentioned at the dose of the First Epoch.— (See p. 16.)—Vallee, 
Ristoire des Francais, Vol. II. — Bryce's Holy Roman Empire, Chap. IV.—Milman's 
Hist. Lat. Chris., Vol. I.— Thierry's Merovingian Era— Book of Golden Deeds, the 
Shepherd Girl of Nanterre.—Guizot's Essays on Civilization in France. — Arnold's 
Hist. Later Soman Commonwealth, Vol. I— Stephens's and Smythe's Lectures on Hist. 
France.— WJiite's Lectures on Eighteen Christian Centuries.— James's Life of Charle- 
magne.— Romance of French Hist., Bertha or the Court of, Charlemagne, and the Ad- 
ventures of Eriland— Freeman's Hist. Essays, First Series, the Early Sieges of Paris 
<—Buhver Lytton's Trans, of the Poem of Ron {Rollo). —Bullfinch's Age of Chivalry.— 



GERMAKGAUL. 35 



Invents of the Second JZpoch in Chronological Order. 

PAGE 

496. Battle of Ziilpicli. Clovis (Hlodowig) became a Christian . 17 

510. Clovis sole king- of the Franks 17 

560. Death of Clovis. Division of Frankish empire . . .18 

567. Three kingdoms in Gaul — Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy 18 

613. Death of Brunehaut 19 

632-8. Dagobert sole king . . . . - . . . .20 

687. Battle of Testry, won by Pepin (Pippin) .... 20 

732. Battle of Tours, won by Charles Martel 21 

752-768. Pepin the Short 23 

768-814. Charlemagne # 24 

800. Charlemagne crowned emperor at Rome - 24 

814-840. Louis the Good-Natured (le Dtbonnaire) . . . .26 

841. Battle of Fontenay 27 

843. Treaty of Verdun 27 

885. The Normans besieged Paris . , . . . . 28 
911. Rollo baptized. Normandy founded . . . .28 

936-956. Hugh the Great held power 30 

987. Hugh Capet crowned 30 

Distinguished JVames of the Carlovingian JS'ra. 

rtleuin (735-804), the most learned man of the day, taught at the court of Charle- 
magne, and wrote poetry, theology, and elementary science. 

HJ&inhard (died about 844), a pupil of Alcuin and secretary of Charlemagne, wrote 
historical works of his times. According to a romantic tradition he married the 
daughter of Charlemagne. 

2\tul Warnefrid (740-799), taught Greek at the court of Charlemagne, and wrote 
a history of the Lombards. 

John Scotius Erigena (about 850), a scholastic philosopher, celebrated for his 
classical acquirements and his subtlety in metaphysical discussions. He has been 
called " the only learned layman of the dark ages.'' 



FEUDAL FRANCE. 

987 to 1494 = 507 Years. 



APET'S ascension to the throne 
marks the real beginning of French 
history. He was a French duke, 
spoke the French language, and 
had his capital at Paris. France, 
however, was not then what it is 
now, nor its king what he became 
in after days. The royal domain 
was little larger than the island 
of Corsica. Hugh Capet himself 
was only the feudal superior of 
about fifty barons. True, he was 
anointed from the sacred phial of 
Rheims, but the Carlovingians 
had sunk so low that he was considered by many to have 
lost in dignity by becoming their successor. He was sur- 
rounded by great feudatories, nominally his vassals, really 
his peers. One, whom Capet reminded of his duty by say- 
ing: "Who made you count ?" replied: "Who made you 

Geographical Questions .—(Sw maps, pp. 1, 37 and 73.)— Locate Normandy, Brit- 
tany, Burgundy, Aquitaine, Valois (val'-wa/), Lorraine (ren), Champagne (sham-pane), 
Anjou (an-zh6o), Artois (twaV), Dauphiny (dO-fe-ne), Flanders, Maine, Toulouse, 
Armagnac (ar-man-yak), Touraine (l6o-ren), Poitou (tooO, Languedoc (15n-geh-dok), 
Laon (la-on), Langres (ISngV, Beauvais (bo-va), Beziera (ba-ze-a), Boulogne (boo- 
lOnO, Orleans, Albi. 




HUGH CAPET. 



987.] 



HUGH CAPET. 



37 



king ?" In the success of the aristocracy feudalism bad 
triumphed, and the nobles were the real sovereigns.* 



III.— THE CAPETIAN LINE. 
937 to 1328=311 Years. 
Hugh Capet (987 to 99G = 9 years) is notable only as 



PARAMOUNT FEUDATORIES 
at the time of the accession of 

HUGH CAPET 




f- F h MEDITERRANEAN 

SEA 



Fisk&Se.. N. Y. 



* France existed only in name. Normandy, Brittmy, Burgundy, Aquitaine, Cham- 
pagne, etc., were the true states, each with its own life and history. Read Guizot'u 
THistoire de France, Tome I, pp. 270-289. 



38 FEUDAL FEANCE. [987. 

the founder of a new dynasty.* In the greater part of Gaul 
the change from the Carlovingian to the Oapetian line was 
scarcely felt.f Hugh, raised by his fellow-nobles, and know- 
ing that he could be as easily deposed by them, was cautious 
about interfering in their affairs. The country was dis- 
tracted by innumerable wars among the great barons, in 
which he took no part. He strengthened himself by bound- 
less devotion to the Church. Indeed, he used the crown 
only at his coronation, and continued through life to wear 
the cape J of an abbot. 

Robert (996 to 1031=35 years) the Pious, governed his 
people more like a pastor than a king. He composed 

a 

hymns, § led the choir in the abbey of St. Denis, and de- 
lighted in the society of pious monks. His palace was filled 
with beggars, and a train of them accompanied him in his 
travels.] His devotion to the Church did not save him 
from its rigors. His wife Bertha was not only his fourth 

* The Capetian line is the most ancient of any now existing in Europe. It had a 
direct male succession for eight centuries, three and a half of which were unbroken 
from father to son. Louis Philippe, driven from the French throne in 1848, was its 
last crowned representative. < 

t In Languedoc no notice was taken of Hugh's ascension, r.nd the inhabitants for 
many years dated their public acts by the nominal reigns of the children of Charles 
of Lorraine, the next heir of the Carlovingian line. 

X Some say that from this circumstance he took his name. 

§ Robert once made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he deposited a packet, with great 
solamnity, on the high altar. After his departure the monks rushed to open it, 
expecting to find some great treasure, when they discovered— a scroll of music. He 
was once desired by Constance to compose a song in her praise. Robert — who led 
by no means a happy life with his second spouse-=-did not feel disposed to comply 
with this request; but he sang a hymn which began : u O Constantia martyrum ! " 
(perhaps the gentle king was not above enjoying the satire); and the queen, who 
knew nothing of Latin, and only distinguished her own name in the words, listened 
complacently, supposing her beauty and wit were the theme of his song. 

|| Many stories are told of his unworldly goodness. One day, while at prayers, a 
thief cut off half his mantle. " That will do ; leave the remainder for another," the 
king mildly suggested, without moving from his kneeling posture.— The queen had 
given him a lance magnificently decorated with silver ornaments. Going to church 
one morning with this in his hand, his pity was excited by a beggar, whom he im- 
mediately beckoned into a corner, where they stripped the lance of all its ornaments. 
Thrusting them into the poor man's wallet, Robert bade him " begone with all speed 
list the queen should see him." 



998.] 



ROBEKT THE PIOUS 



39 



cousin, but he had also been godfather to her child by a 
former marriage. According to the severe laws then in 
force, this marriage was illegal, and Pope Gregory V. com- 
manded the royal pair to separate.* Eobert refused, 

protested, and pleaded, 
but in vain. Sen- 
tence of excommunica- 
tion was passed upon 




KING ROBERT AND HIS CHOIR. 

them. No Christian could henceforth eat, drink, or pray 
with them. They were abandoned by friends and ser- 
vants. After a struggle of a few years the young couple 
sorrowfully parted. Bertha retired to a convent. Eobert 
afterward married Constance of Toulouse, "beautiful and 
masterful." She was accompanied by a crowd of young 



* The real cause of opposition was political. Bertha had claims to the crown of 
Burgundy. This crown had been bequeathed by its late owner to the emperor of 
Germany, who easily prevailed on a German pope to annul a marriage which threat- 
ened to unite this valuable kingdom to the French crown. 



40 m FEUDAL FRANCE. [1000-1033. 

nobles from Aquitaine,* whose manners and dress shocked 
the grave courtiers of the king. In his last days Robert, like 
Louis the Good-lNTatured, was obliged to take up arms against 
his rebellious children, and sank under the unnatural con- 
flict. His attendants wept bitterly oyer his grave, saying : 
" We have lost our father." 

The Year 1000, it was generally believed, would mark 
the end of the world. f As the time drew near, the hearts 
of- men misgave them. The devastations of the Normans 
and the contentions of the nobles had desolated the country. 
Towns were burned; land was uncultivated; and famine 
had mowed down whole populations. All interests were 
suspended in the dread thought of eternity and judgment. 
Men forsook their trades; soldiers laid aside helmet and 
cuirass for the frock and hair-shirt. Lands J and money 
were freely bestowed on the Church. For three years 
(1030-1032) the seasons seemed to fail from their course, and 
there w T as neither seed-time nor harvest. At Tournus human 
flesh was offered for sale in the market-place. § Troops of 
wolves came down from the mountains, and, prowling through 
the streets, attacked the living and the dead. In the midst 

* Aquitaine at that time retained the Roman civilization and manners, and was 
centuries in advance of Northern France. The clergy at the Capetian court, how- 
ever, despised and denounced their southern neighbors, and looked upon a man 
dressed by an Aquitaine tailor as " in danger of perdition.'" The old chronicle thus 
describes the queen's courtiers: "They were the most vain and frivolous of men. 
Their manners and dress were disorderly; the arms and equipments of their horses 
were equally strange. In the middle part of their heads they had no hair, and their 
b sards were shaven like Merry- Andrews. Their leggings and buskins were shame- 
fully fashioned. In short, they respected neither faith nor the promises of peace. 
But oh, grief ! these abominable examples were immediately copied by the whole 
race of Frenchmen 1 " 

t This grew out of a strange interpretation of Rev. xx. 1-7. There was some 
doubt whether the world was to come to an end on the thousandth year from the 
birth or the death of Christ, and thus the excitement was prolonged for years. 

% Most of the charters of endowment granted at this time begin : "The end of the 
world approaching. 1 ' 

§ An innkeeper near Macon decoyed into his house no less than fcrty-eight unhappy 
victims, whom he murdered and then devoured. 



1030-1033.] 



HEIfSY I 



41 




THE YEAR IOOO. 



of the desolation, the nobles, more to be dreaded than even 
the wild beasts, continued their ambitions struggles. "At 
length," says the chronicler, "by the mercy of God, the 
waters were assuaged and the sky began to brighten; the 
breath of the winds became propitious, and the calamities of 
the earth drew toward their close." The harvest which fol- 
lowed equalled that of three ordinary years. 

Henry I. (1031 to 1060 = 29 years), opposed by his mother 
Constance, who preferred her favorite son Robert, secured 
his throne by the aid of Robert the Magnificent," Duke of 



* Robert was the son of the famous Richard Sans Peur (the Fearless), so noted for 
bravery, piety, and goodness, as well as for beauty of person— his long beard and 
white hair being especially celebrated by Norman historians. Richard the Fearless 
had a stone coffin, which he filled every Friday with wheat. The grain, with a 
donation of money, was distributed among the poor. When he died, he ordered his 
body to be laid in this coffin, and placed outside the church under the eaves, "that 
the drippings of the rain from the holy roof may wash my bones as I lie. and may 
cleanse them from the impurity contracted in life." The inheritance and title fell to 
the elder brother, Richard. Soon afterward Robert invited him to a banquet at 



42 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1031-1080. 

Normandy. He reigned quietly, and received little notice 
from contemporary historians. Remembering the ills of his 
father, and to prevent all possibility of marrying within the 
prohibited degrees, he took for his third wife a princess of 
Russia, a nation then scarcely known in Europe. 

The Truce of God. — Though the kings were comparatively passive, 
it was a time of intense activity among the great vassals. Count warred 
against count; castle against castle. The Church, finding it could not 
subdue, sought to regulate the fierce contests which devastated the 
country. The truce of God was proclaimed (1041). This made it a sin 
to shed blood from the setting of the sun on Wednesday eve until its 
rising on Monday morn, as well as on all church festivals and fast 
days. A perpetual safeguard was also given to churches, unarmed 
clerks, and monks. Offenders were liable to excommunication,* ban- 
ishment, and even death. This beneficent law, though often violated, 
did much toward the restoration of confidence. It stands as a noble 
monument of the clemency and power of the Church. 

Church Building. — The impression made by all the calamities which 
marked the beginning of the eleventh century was by no means tran- 
sitory. Men's hearts were touched, even through their coats of mail. 
They made liberal benefactions to the Church. The energies of lord 
and abbot were turned from war and expended in the erection of mag- 
nificent cathedrals and abbeys, whose ruins to-day attest their former 
beauty, and attract admiring travelers from all parts of the world. 

Philip I. (1080 to 1108 = 48 years), the eldest son of 
Henry, was scarcely eight years old when he ascended the 
throne. He early developed a low and depraved character. 

Falaise. All the guests died within a few hours, and Robert was suspected of poi- 
soning them. Be that as it may, he immediately seized the duchy, and in admiration 
for his valor the Normans soon became reconciled to his rule. In defence of Henry 
he showed such reckless daring as to acquire" the popular name of Robert le Diable 
(the Devil). Some years afterward, according to the fashion of his time, he made a 
pilgrimage to Jerusalem, from which he never returned. His natural son, William, 
became heir to the estate, and afterward filled Europe with the renown which he 
won as William the Conqueror. 

* Five years before a law, known as " The Peace of God, 1 ' had been published, 
which commanded all men to lay down their arms. All offenders were thus publicly 
denounced : " May they be accursed ; may they be banished with Cain the fratricide, 
with the traitor Judas, with Dathan and Abiram. who entered alive into hell; and 
may their joy be extinguished at the aspect of the holy angels as these lights are 
extinguished before your eyes. ,, At these words the priests, who held lighted wax 
candles in their hands, turned them toward the earth and extinguished them, while 
the people, seized with fear, repeated, as with one voice : " May God thus extinguish 
the joy of those who will not accept peace and justice." 



1030-1108.] PHILIP I. 43 

To procure money for the indulgence of his vices, he imposed 
taxes on travelers, and sold to the highest bidder the bishop- 
rics and offices of the Church. Growing hardened in sin, he 
repudiated his wife Bertha, and married the wife of the 
Count of Anjou.. The Church at once administered a whole- 
some discipline and excommunicated them. Outwardly, 
Philip professed obedience, but really made no change. In 
old age, however, lie experienced a tardy remorse, and at his 
death declared himself unworthy of burial with the monarchs 
of France at St. Denis. 

Three great events happened during this reign : the Inva- 
sion of England by William, Duke of Normandy ; the Cru- 
sades ; and the conquest of Sicily by Norman adventurers.* 
Philip took no part in any of them, but they seemed to draw 
off the restless, ambitious knights, especially the Normans, 
whose energy and valor threatened the throne. 

The Norman Conquest of England. — At the battle 
of Hastings (1066), William, Duke of Normandy, won the 
crown of England. Philip saw with dismay his vassal be- 
come his equal in rank and his superior in power. This 
complication of English rule and French allegiance was 
henceforth a fruitful source of strife. During Philip's reign 
war existed between himself and William the Conqueror for 
twelve years, and William at last died while besieging the 
city of Nantes. 

PERIOD OF THE CRUSADES. 

1095 to 1270=175 Years. 

The First Crusades. — A pilgrimage to the Holy Land 
had long been deemed the most acceptable of penances. 

* For an account of this expedition, which does not directly concern French his- 
tory, read Knight's The Normans in Sicily. 



44 



FEUDAL FRANCE 



[109: 



" One touch of the sepulchre and one night on Calvary com- 
pensated for all the errors of a life-time." The way was long, 
the people hostile, and 
few came back from this 
terrible journey. Europe 
was full of heart-rend- 
ing accounts of the out- 
rages endured by the 
peaceful pilgrim at the 
hands of the 
t u r b a n e d 
Moslem. 

About the 
close of the 
eleventh cen- 
tury, Peter 
the Hermit,* 
a pcor monk 

W^~~\ of Amiens, came to France, calling -upon the 
people to rescue the birthplace of our Saviour 
from the Infidel. His words were caught up as 
those of a messenger from heaven. f An army 
mustered on the plains of Bithynia, 700,000 
strong, under the command of Godfrey of Boui- 
llon (boo-yojsr), Duke of Lorraine. Nice and 
Antioch were captured. But, when, the Cru- 
f Godfrey de saclers reached Jerusalem, only 60,000 were left 

BOUILLON. ^ be gladdenGd by a gight of the Ho]y p lace> 

* The missionary who preached the first crusade, the pope who sanctioned and 
enjoined it, the principal leaders of the expedition, and two-thirds of the crusading 
army, were French. A Frenchman founded the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem ; 
Frenchmen were placed at the head of almost all the principalities established by the 
crusaders in the East ; and, during the entire Christian occupation of Palestine, the 
French language, manners, and political system prevailed. 

t Those who engaged to go received a cross of red cloth, which they fastened to 





THE TOME OF CGDFREY DE BOUILLON. 



THE SWORD 



101)9." 



LOUIS VI. 



45 



The city was stormed, and the banner of the cross floated 
from the ramparts in triumph. " On that day," says Bobert 
the Monk, "the victors rode in blood, to their horses' knees/"' 
The Christian kingdom of Jerusalem was founded, and God- 
frey appointed to its command. He refused to wear a diadem 
of gold and purple where his Redeemer had w T orn a crown 
of thorns, and hence was known only as Baron of the Holy 
Sepulchre. 

LOUIS VI. (THE FAT). 

1103 to 1137=29 Years. 

Louis VI. was the real founder of the French monarchy. 
The four preceding Capets had been led by events ; Louis 
controlled them. Many of 
the great lords had become 
robbers. From their strong 
castles they sallied out, plun- 
dering or murdering trav- 
elers, or holding them 
prisoners till they bouj 



as 
:ht 




their freedom with a ruinous 
ransom. Even the church, 
and the monastery were not 
safe from their reckless spolia- 
tion. Louis appealed to the 
bishops for help.* They 
armed their serfs and ten- 
ants, and the haughty barons 
were checked, the great roads rendered safe, and the country 

their right shoulders. Hence they were known as Croises, and the enterprise as a 
Crusade. 

* So low had the power of (he French kings sunk that Philip had, during his 
whole life, tried in vain to get possession of the castle of Montlheri (Mon-la-ree)', the 
stronghold of a brigand noble, only eight miles from Paris. 



CASTLE OF MONTLHERI. 



46 FEUDAL FEAI^CE. [1137. 

guarded from pillage. Just before his death, his son Louis, 
already crowned, married Eleanor, the heiress of Aquitainc, 
thus adding this rich possession to the royal domain. 

Communes. — The union of the king, clergy, and peasants constitute 
the marked feature of this reign. To obtain means by which to carry 
out his measures, Louis granted to certain cities charters conferring 
special privileges. The citizens organized themselves into communes, 
or associations for mutual defence, elected magistrates, and organized 
militia. In turn, they supplied the royal purse and furnished the king 
with troops. Humbled and trodden under-foot by their feudal masters, 
the people already began to show some signs of that power which they 
were yet to assert. 

Louis VII. the Young (1137 to 1180=43 years), gentle, 
simple-minded, and devout, lacked the energy to carry on 
his father's work. 

The Second Crusade.* — News had arrived that Edessa, 
the outpost of Christendom, had fallen to the Turks, and 
that fears were felt for the little kingdom of Jerusalem. 
France sprang to her feet. The king was the first to enlist in 
a new crusade. So great was the crowd clamoring for the 
red cross that the monks were compelled to tear up their 
own garments to supply the demand. Louis received the 
oriflamme \ with great pomp before the altar of St. Denis, 
and with 100,000 men set off for the Holy Land. The whole 
expedition was one series of disasters. At the end of two 
years Louis returned with a few hundred knights, the scanty 
wreck of his brilliant army. 

* In a war with the Count of Champagne, the fortified town of Vitryhad been 
taken by assault and set on fire by the king's troops. Thirteen hundred helpless 
inhabitants, who had sought refuge in the parish church, perished in the flames. 
The remorse which he suffered on account of- this disaster decided Louis on a pil- 
grimage to the Holy Land. "The king did it as a penance for his crime ; penance 
was throughout the leading thought ; the Crusade was a crusade of criminals." 

t It was the custom for all Catholic churches of ndte to possess a banner. That 
of St. Denis was said to have been sent from heaven in the time of Clovis. It was 
made of red silk, covered with golden flames, and its staff was a golden spear. From 
its glowing color it was called the oriflamme. Louis VI. adopted it as the royal 
banner. 



1152.] LOUIS VII. 47 

Divorce from Eleanor. — The king's popularity was 
gone. His high-spirited queen taunted him with being 
more of a monk than a monarch. She could not forgive his 
pusillanimity, nor he forget certain follies of which she had 
been guilty, and so they separated. She took hack her mag- 
nificent dower, and the crown of France was shorn of half its 
territory. Within six weeks she married Henry Plantagenet, 
Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, who soon after be- 
came Henry II. of England. 

Difficulties with England. — Louis was no match for 
the shrewd English monarch. Pleasing the weak vanity of 
the French king by rendering him feudal homage for his 
new possessions, Henry steadily pursued his schemes. He 
thus managed to obtain the county of Nantes, and to become 
feudal lord of Brittany.* In the conflict between Henry and 
Thomas a Becket, Louis took the part of the latter, and a 
petty war arose between France and England. The two 
monarchs were finally reconciled. 

PHILIP II. (AUGUSTUS). 

1180-1223=43 Years. 

Philip Augustus f never swerved from the work of 
building up the French monarchy, so well begun by his 
royal grandfather. Philip's sole purpose was to humble the 
great lords and bring them under the power of the crown. 
He pursued this end for nearly half a century J with crafty 

* Afterward ho successively betrothed two of his sons by Eleanor to two of Louis's 
daughters by a second wife. The little brides, about three yeais old, were sent to 
England to be educated. 

t At his ascension the power of the French crown was still so feeble that a large 
part of what is at present known as France was feudally held by neighboring mon- 
archs. The provinces on the west principally obeyed the king of ^England, those on 
the east the emperor of Germany, while Provence and a part cf Languedoc were fiefs 
of the king of Arragon. 

X There is a story that one day his courtiers found him gnawing a green bough and 
glaring wildly around. When asked what he was thinking about, he answered : ' k I 



48 



FEUDAL FRANCE. 



[1180. 




cunning. He aroused baron against baron. He chastised the 
great feudatories. He encouraged the growth of the communes. 

He stirred up sedition 
in Normandy. He ex- 
cited the sons of Henry 
II. of England to rebel- 
lion,supporting Richard 
(afterward the famous 
Cceur de Lion, or Lion- 
Hearted,) in open revolt. 
Humbled by domestic 
trouble and civil strife, 
Henry was forced at 
last to accept the con- 
ditions of a humiliating 
peace. 
The Third Crusade (1190) for a lime interrupted this 
scheme of aggrandizement. The Latin kingdom of Jerusa- 
lem had fallen before the conquering arms of Sal'-adin. Philip 
and Richard (now king of England) assumed the cross, as- 
sembled their forces, and joined the Crusaders under the 
walls of Acre (a-ker). Philip, however, w T as jealous of Rich- 
ard's wonderful feats at arms, while Richard resented the 
superiority claimed by Philip as his feudal lord. The French 
king finally returned home, having first taken an oath to 
defend his rival's lands as his own. 

Philip Pursues his Scheme. — No sooner, however, was 
Philip safe home than, allying himself with John, Richard's 
brother, who was plotting for the English throne, he invaded 
Normandy.* The lion-Hearted, coming back from the East, 

am wondering whether God will grant me or my heirs grace to raise France to the 
height she reached in the days of Charlemagne. ■' 

* Before he attacked the states of his brother-in-arms, he compounded with Heaven 
for the violation of his oath by throwing eighty Jews into the lire. When he first 



1194] PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 49 

defeated him at Vendome (1194), and regained all he had 
lost. Kichard's death (1199) relieved Philip of this dreaded 
foe. Shaking off John, who had become king of England, 
he now supported the cause of Arthur of Brittany, John's 
nephew and rival. War ensued. Arthur fell into the 
hands of his uncle, who, it was believed, stabbed him with 
his own hands, and threw his body into the Seine. This 
unnatural crime aroused universal indignation. Philip sum- 
moned John, as his vassal, to clear himself before the French 
peers.* Failing to comply, he was adjudged to have forfeited 
his fiefs. Philip soon conquered nearly all the English pos- 
sessions in France. Aquitaine and the channel islands alone 
remained to England. 

Battle of Bouvines (1214). — Meanwhile, John having 
been excommunicated for his treatment of the clergy, Philip 
was summoned by Pope Innocent III. to invade England. 
He accordingly raised an immense army. John, alarmed, 
hastened to make peace with the Roman Pontiff. There- 
upon Philip turned his arms against Flanders, the plunder 
of whose rich fields was to compensate him for his disappoint- 
ment. John and his nephew Otto, emperor of Germany, 
allied with the count of Flanders for its defence. But at 
Bouvines Philip achieved a brilliant victory. The militia 
from sixteen communes for.^ht at his side, and rivalled the 
knights in their exploits. 



ascended the throne, a boy of fifteen, he plundered the Jews— whom his milder father 
had protected— and drove them out of his kingdom, canceling the debts of his Chris- 
tian subjects by making it death for a Hebrew to receive any money, but requiring 
the debtor to give the king one-fifth of the obligation. 

* All vassals under the same lord were styled peers, to signify their equality among 
themselves. Those who held directly from the crown were called Peers of France. 
The number was not limited under the feudal system, but in time was confined to 
six laymen and six ecclesiastics. The six lay peers were the dukes of Burgundy, 
Normandy, and Aquitaine ; the counts of Flanders, Champagne, and Toulouse. The 
six clerical peers were f he archbishop of Rheims, and the bishops of Laon, Langres, 
Chalons, Noyon, and Beauvais. 

3 



50 



FEUDAL FRANCE. 



[1214. 



The Effect. — John purchased a truce by the payment of 
sixty thousand marks. The counts of Flanders and Boulogne 
forfeited their fiefs. It was the triumph of royalty over feud- 
alism, and the first great French victory. Intoxicated by 
success, the nation began to acquire a thirst for military 
glory. 

Success of Philip's Plans. — In the fruits of Philip's 
politic reign, one almost forgets the unscrupulousness of 




PARIS IN THE TIME OF PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 



many of his acts. He established the first permanent taxes. 
He gave regular pay to soldiers. He foresaw the importance 
of the cities and encouraged their growth. He added to the 
power of law and the influence of the courts. He gathered 
learned men about the throne. He beautified Paris, paving 
the streets, and erecting markets, churches, hospitals, and 
other public edifices. He built Notre Dame. He founded 
the University of Paris. He gained Normandy, Maine, An- 
jou, Touraine, and Poitou, and thus doubled the extent of 
his dominions. 



1208.] PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 51 

The Southern Provinces were very unlike the northern. 
They had another language * and other customs. Eemoved 
from Teutonic influence, their cities still retained the con- 
sular form of government handed down from Gallo-Koman 
times, while they were centres of wealth, luxury, and refine- 
ment. 

Crusade against the Albigenses.f — Among the inde- 
pendent southerners, there had long been great liberty in 
religious views and discussions. Sects had arisen which cast 
aside certain doctrines of the Church of Eome. Pope Inno- 
cent now determined to suppress what was fast becoming an 
organized opposition to his authority. The heretic trouba- 
dour (see p. 54) Eaymond, count of Toulouse, was excommu- 
nicated. One of his vassals, indignant at the disgrace of his 
suzerain, assassinated the pope's legate (1208). Crusade after 
crusade was then preached against this unhappy people. The 
northern knights, gross and barbarous beside the southern* 
took the occasion to avenge a hated superiority and to pillage 
the cities of which they had heard so many marvels. The 
war opened by the siege of Beziers. The city was stormed 
and 15,000 people massacred. Thirty -five years of the 
sword, stake, and scaffold accomplished their work. The 
cities were laid in ruins. Commerce was destroyed. The 
sweet Provencal language ceased to be heard. Democratic 
institutions perished, and feudalism was established. 

Louis VIII. 's (1223 to 1226 = 3 years) brief reign was only 
a continuation of his father's. He is known in history as the 
son of an excellent father, the father of an excellent son, and 

* The inhabitants of Languedoc spoke a dialect called the Provencal, or langue 
<Toc, which differed from that used in Northern France, known as the langue cToui, 
or langue d'oil. The distinction arose from the word employed for yes. In the south 
it was oc, from the Latin hoc ; in the north oc was compounded with il, and shortened 
into oil (oui).— See Craik's Literature and Language, p. 123. 

t This sect was so called because its adherents were numerous around Albi, a city 
of Toulouse. 



52 feudal feance. [1223-6. 

the husband of an excellent wife — Blanche of Castile. He 
led a new crusade against the Albigenses, and captured Avig- 
non, but died of disease contracted during the siege. 

Condition of Society. — During the first century of the Capetian 
kings we have noticed the miseries marking the close of the millenary 
from Christ's birth and crucifixion. The Truce of God greatly mitigated 
these, but did not prevent extreme distress and confusion. Of the 
seventy-three years which cover the reigns of Hugh Capet and his suc- 
cessors, forty-eight were years of famine. — Great enthusiasm arose in 




SERFS OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 
(From MSS. of the time.) 

founding religious edifices. In a few years three hundred and twenty- 
six monasteries were added to the eleven hundred already existing. — 
Education was mostly confined to the monks. A taste for learning 
sprang up during the reign of Louis VI.,* the road to church prefer- 
ment having been opened to all irrespective of rank or wealth. It was 
the sole dignity accessible to the common people, and the effect of an 
avenue for ambition was speedily seen. — As one means of raising 
money for the Crusades, many of the nobles had allowed their serfs 
to purchase their freedom. On their return they were highly incensed 
at the wealth and numbers of the freemen. — Crests and coats-of-arms 
had already been introduced among the nobles. Family surnames were 
now assumed, as a further distinction between the nobility and middle 
classes, but the fashion was soon followed by the latter, and became 
general. 

* A geography written in the early part of the eleventh century, describes Sweden 
and Norway as "two vast realms unknown to the civilized world," and Eussia as "a 
country where the people have hut one eye and one leg." 



FEUDAL FRANCE. 53 

Tlie Commune was to the middle classes what chivalry was to the 
nobles ; more, indeed ; for, while the latter was a field for glory, the 
former was a struggle toward liberty. Swearing to devote their labor, 
goods, and blood to the defence of their common rights, the people 
formed a brotherhood, seized the ramparts of their towns, elected 
municipal officers, and compelled the nobles to give them a written 
charter as a protection against future despotism. Bloody opposition 
often accompanied the establishments of the communes ; as in that of 
Cambrai, " four times created, four times destroyed." Sometimes, 
however, they purchased their freedom ; sometimes the lords volun- 
tarily granted it. — In the orders of Louis VI. the title of bourgeois 
(boor-zhwa) first appears. • 

The Knights.— To misty Germanic traditions of honor and valor 
were added the religious fervor of the Crusades, the spirit of exclu- 
siveness among the nobles, and a growing refinement and tenderness 
toward woman. All these combined and aided in the growth of 
Chivalry, a system which budded, and blossomed, and tinctured cen- 
turies with a roseate hue. The most fascinating hero of romance is a 
knight of the Middle Ages. Always of noble blood, brave, courteous, 
munificent," true to his word and the Church, above all devoted to 
womankind ; now battering at the walls of Jerusalem, now tilting in 
the gorgeous tournament, amid the sound of martial music, the jingle 
of armor, and the rustle of fair dames, the model of honor and of 
prowess, this is the ideal chevalier. Every step of his life is tinged 
with romance. A lad of seven, he enters as page the castle of some 
noble distinguished for deeds of arms. There he attends my lady in 
her boudoir, lets fly and recalls her falcon in the chase, and carries her 
messages of love. In return he is instructed in chess, music, the 
refinements of manners, and the principles of religion. During the 
long winter evenings the spacious hall, hung with knightly armor and 
full of chivalric souvenirs, rings with heroic recitals of love or of war, 
or the strains of the wandering troubadour. He glows with emulous 
ardor as he listens, and vows to become the bravest of the brave. At 
fourteen he is made squire, and assigned to some office about the cas- 
tle — any duty being an honor in the knightly apprenticeship. His 
physical, moral, and military education becomes more rigid. Seated 

* The knight's idea of courtesy and liberality was limited to hi? equals in station. 
Joinville tells a story of a certain count of Champagne, when importuned for money 
by a knight who lacked dowry for his daughters. A rich burgess, standing near, 
thinking to win the count's favor by his wit and service, said to the petitioner: " My 
lord has given away so much he has nothing left." "Sir villain, " answered the. 
haughty count, "I have yourself. Here, Sir Knight. T <_ r ive you this man and warrant, 
your possession."' The happy knighl seized the unlucky burgess and compelled him 
to give a ransom of five hundred pounds for his release. The incident is put on 
record as a proof of this count's generosity! 



54 FEUDAL FKANCE. 

on his horse, he learns to manage arms, to scale walls, to leap ditches. 
He leads the war-steed of his lord to the tournament or the battle, and 
when the hour comes, panting after the glorj for which he cannot yet 
compete, he " rivets with a sigh the armor he is forbidden to wear." 
At twenty-one his probation is ended. Fasting, ablution, confession, 
communion, and a night in prayer at the altar, precede the final cere- 
mony. He takes the vow to defend the faith, protect the weak, and 
honor womankind ; his belt is slung around him ; his golden spurs are 
buckled on. He kneels ; receives the accolade,* and rises a chevalier. 
His horse is led to the church door, and, amid the shouts of the crowd 
and the peal of trumpets, he rides away into the wide world, which 
holds her honors at his winning. Not all knights were like Godfrey 
or Bayard (p. 113). The very virtues of chivalry often degenerated 
into vices ; but any approach to courtesy and gentleness in this brutal 
and ferocious age was a wonderful advance, and the weakest chevalier 
was a happy exchange for the robber baron. 

The Troubadours, the pioneers of rhyme in France, flourished during 
the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Wandering poets, singing of love 
and beauty, exalting the graces or sighing over the cruel coldness of 
fair ladies, their delightful flatteries opened every castle gate and won 
the warmest welcome. Their verse had neither imagination nor vivid 
description. The gallant deeds of chivalry were too soul-stirring for 
their ribboned guitars ; they sang only of the heart, and charmed by 
the very sensuousness of sound. Their lyrics lose their grace by trans- 
lation. — The Trouveres, the poets of the north, took up the pen after 
the troubadours had ceased to sing. Their style was elaborate and 
prolix. The allegory was their delight. A celebrated poem of this 
species, called " The Romance of the Rose," begun about 1250 by one 
poet and completed nearly half a century later, contained 22,000 
verses. The Trouveres also indulged in comic tales or fables, in 
romances of chivalry and fictitious history. 

Tournaments. — These were true knightly pastimes, sharing the 
meed of honor with the battle-field. The sharp end of the lance used 
in tilting was usually sheathed in a circular piece of wood, to prevent 
danger, but a knight might challenge his opponent by touching his 
shield with the bare point, when the encounter took place as in actual 
battle. The lists were formed by railing in an oval space, from the 
extreme ends of which, at the sound of the trumpet and the voice of 
the herald, the combatants dashed at full speed to meet in the centre. 
From the raised galleries which overlooked the lists thousands of eyes 
looked on, and bursts of applause rang out after each brilliant feat of 

* This is a blow on the neck of the candidate with the flat of a sword, given by 
the conferring prince, who, at the same time, pronounces the words: "I dub thee 
knight, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.' 1 



FEUDAL ERANCE. 55 

arms or horsemanship. The ladies, arrayed in magnificent costume, 
were among the most eager of spectators. They cheered their favorite 
knights by decking them with ribbons and scarfs from their own dress. 
" During a long and anxious combat the poor ladies would appear at 
last stripped of their finery, which was seen tied to the armor of the 
combatants." The fluttering of brilliant hues among the gay specta- 
tors, the fresh, soft green of the turf, the sheen of knightly armor, the 
rich caparison of noble steeds, the blaza of trumpets and the shouts of 
heralds, all lent to the gorgeousness of a scene whose excitement was 
yet greater than its splendor. And when the conquering knight bent 
to receive the prize from the hand of some fair lady, the whole air 
trembled with the shouts of " honor to the brave," and " glory to the 
victor." 

Courts of Love. — While the knights had tournaments and trials 
of skill at arms, the ladies presided over courts of love, whither poets 
were summoned to measure their genius and wit. They were most 
pompously conducted, with judges and prizes. In these courts were 
also settled disputes concerning precedence, nice points of etiquette, 
and the deserts of false lovers. In them seem to have culminated all 
extravagance of sentimental folly. 

Manners and Customs, — Had we visited Paris in the early part of 
the twelfth century, we should have found narrow, filthy streets, reek- 
ing with offensive odors and filled with rubbish, in and out of which 
droves of swine were rioting .* Had it chanced to be one October day, 
1181, when the oldest son of Louis VI. — already crowned as the next 
king — was riding through the capital, we might have witnessed the 
fatal stumble of his horse over one of these unsightly animals, and the 
death-fall of the young prince. After that, we should have heard pro- 
claimed the royal order that none but " the swine belonging to the 
abbey of St. Anthony," and these with "bells about their necks to 
warn of their approach," might roam the city highways. — On a holiday 
we should have seen the country-folk wild with merriment. Here is 
a circle. Two men, blindfolded, each with a birch bough in one hand, 
and in the other a rope attached to a stake. A fat goose or a pig is 
introduced. Now begins the sport. Here, there, everywhere within 
their little round, they strike, seldom hitting the game they seek, but 
often each other, amid the shouts of the uproarious crowd. This was a 
favorite pastime even for kings to witness. There, two men are wrest- 

* Standing by his palace window one day, watching the flow of the river Seine, 
Philip Augustus was almost overpowered by the stench from the filthy streets. 
According to the Chronicle of St. Denis, " he turned away in great abomination of 
heart, which gave him courage to conceive a magnificent idea." His next orders 
were that Paris should be paved with stone— a design which was, however, only 
imperfectly carried out. 



56 



FEUDAL FRANCE 



ling- ; and yonder, for humanity ebbed low in the Middle Ages, a poor 
old horse is tied to a post to be worried and tortured by dogs. Com- 
panies of acrobats and jugglers, with dancing-bears and trained monkeys, 
complete the rustic revelry. 

If we enter the castle of some knightly baron in this twelfth century, 
we shall see a primitive simplicity in all its pertainings. Against the 
walls — many of bare stone, some whitened with mortar — hang arms 
and armor arranged in suits, banners and emblazoned standards, all 
the cherished symbols of chivalry. The great hall of state is draped 
with tapestry, whereon grotesque figures of men, towers, trees, and 
animals appear — a commemoration of some heroic 
deed in history or romance. The stone or tiled 
floor, if it be winter, is strewn with straw; * if 
summer, with sweet-scented herbs, which fill the 
air with fragrance. At the head of the massive 
oak table in the dining-hall sits the lord of the 
castle in a large arm-chair, overhung with silken 
canopy. His guests, according to their rank, are 
placed on either side of him, and below- the large 
salt-cellar sit the servants. After the repast, the 
ladies assume fresh toilettes. A fine linen cap ; a 
tight, short-waisted gown, with a round golden 
buckle at the collar, and two silken bands forming 
a sort of necklace, with perhaps a long, loose cloak 
to complete the costume. Long bands are the 
fashion ; they depend from my lady's belt in 
front and from the wrists of her sleeves, while 
the lappets of her cap hang over her shoulders. 
Male and female attire differ slightly from each 
other, save that the lord's robe is shorter, and 
his belt has no hangings. His velvet cap is 
pointed at the top, with a long streamer attached, and has a peak 
turned up in front. For peaks also are in vogue. Those on my lord's 
shoes are two feet long, and shaped like a scorpion's tail. The knights, 
in full armor, lead the dance, which follows the meal. A minstrel ac- 
companies the harp with his song, and the young ladies join in the refrain. 
At the top of the high towers are the sleeping-rooms. Small, unfur- 
nished, save with a large bed, a chest for clothing, which serves also 
for a seat, and one chair used for devotions, containing prayer and 
other sacred books. A loop-hole in the walls serves for a window, and 
is closed by a square of oiled paper or thin horn. 




MALE COSTUME. 
(Eleventh and Twelfth Cen- 
turies). 



* There is a curious letter extant from Philip Augustus desiring that the straw 
with which the floors of his palace were strewed might be given each day, u for the 
good of his soul," to the Maison de Dieu— a hospital for the poor. 



1226.] ST. LOUIS. 57 

We find the bourgeois now rising above the level of the serfs, with 
whom the nobility have so long included them. With growing wealth 
they ape the manners and the luxuries of the aristocracy, who as stub- 
bornly resist any encroachments on their own peculiar dignities. The 
law forbids their use of ornaments and stuffs exclusively reserved for 
the nobility, but the favor of Philip Augustus emboldened them to the 
very verge of forbidden indulgences, and private life in the home of 
the bourgeois is already an imitation of that in the chateaux. 



LOUIS IX. 

1226 to 1270 = 44 Years. 

Louis IX., known as St. Louis, a child of twelve years, 
was crowned soon, after the death of his father. The haughty 
barons could ill brook the regency of his Spanish mother, and 
seized the opportunity for revolt, hoping to recover their lost 
importance. But all opposition was vain. With the aid of 
the militia she subdued the nobles, and, by her wonderful 
prudence, reconciled them to the crown. Count Eaymond 
yielded, and a treaty was made (1229) whereby Languedoc 
was ultimately annexed to France. Blanche trained her son 
in such habits of purity, honesty, and worth, that, says Vol- 
taire, "It is not given to man to carry virtue to a higher 
point."* Even after Louis reigned alone, she exacted from 
him the same submission as before, extending not alone to 
the concerns of state, but also to the details of his private 
life.f 

* He wore the roughest sackcloth next his body. Ou every Friday, and thrice a 
week during Lent, he bared his shoulders to his confessor to be beaten with a 
scourge. He tasted fruit but once a year; he constantly washed the feet of beggars, 
invited the poor and sick to his table, and performed the most menial offices at public 
hospitals. A leper on the farther side of a swamp once begged of him ; the king 
crossed over, not only gave him alms, but kissed his hand ! He "loved all mankind 
with a boundless love, except Jews, heretics, and infidels, whom he hated with as 
boundless hatred." 

t When Louis was nineteen years old he married. Although the bride was her 
own choice, the queen-mother could not submit to have her influence lessened, and 
watched the young pair with such jealousy that they were obliged to meet by stealth, 
having signals to guard against her coming. 



58 



FEUDAL PRANCE. 



[1243. 



Seventh Crusade (1248-54). — In a time of dangerous 
illness Louis assumed the red cross. From that moment, it 
is said, he began to mend. On his recovery he prepared for 

the fulfilment of his vow. 
Not the remonstrances of 
Blanche, who " shuddered 
as if he lay dead before 
her," when she saw the 
sign of the cross, not the 
tears of his wife, nor the 




ST. LOUIS LANDING IN EGYPT. 

counsels of the prelates, could shake his determination.* He 
received the oriflamme at St. Denis, and confiding the gov- 

* It was the custom to give each courtier a new robe at Christmas. On the eve 
of that day (1245) the king bade all his court be present at early morning mass. At 
the chapel door each man received his new cloak, put it on, and went in. At first all 
was dark; but as the day rose, each saw the cross on his neighbor's shoulder. "Then 
they jested and laughed, seeing that their lord king had taken them piously, preach- 
ing by deeds, not by words." Soon remembering, however, that they could not 
decently throw down the sacred sign, their laughter became mixed with tears, for 
they were not eager to undertake the holy war.— Matthew Paris, p. 604. 



1248.] LOUIS IX. 59 

eminent to his mother, departed for the East. His expedition 
was directed first to Egypt, where the Saracens had achieved 
new successes. Arriving upon the coast, he leaped into the 
sea, sword in hand, and at the head of his knights repulsed 
the enemy. Louis, however, was no general. Delays oc- 
curred ; he was beaten in battle ; a pestilence broke out in 
camp; and he was finally forced to surrender. But even in 
irons the captive monarch maintained the majesty of a king 
and the resignation of a Christian. He was afterward ran- 
somed, and spent several years in visiting and fortifying Tyre, 
Sidon and other places held by the Christians. Hearing of 
the death of his mother, he returned to France. 

Government. — Louis immediately set himself about grave 
matters of state. All men intuitively relied upon him ; the 
baron on his justice, the church on his piety, and the people 
on his kindness. Troubled in conscience as to the legality 
of the acquisitions made from England by his grandfather, 
he restored several districts to Henry III. He never wearied 
in making peace among the quarreling barons. He com- 
piled the first code of justice instituted by the house of 
Capet. He summoned to court counsellors well versed in 
Roman law, and made all men equal before its bar.* He 
suppressed private wars, and forbade trial by wager of battle. 
He raised the standard of coin, and made it current in all the 
states. He protected the lower orders, and sitting, as was 
his custom of the afternoon, under a shady oak, still shown 
at Vincennes, he admitted the people to his presence without 

* The lord of Coucy, proudest among the feudal landowners, caught three students 
rabbiting in his warren, and hung them up at once. Their friends brought the mat- 
ter before the king. St. Louis summoned his vassal, and when he refused, compelled 
him to appear. The angry knight would not submit to the judgment of the king's 
court, and offered wager of battle. St. Louis compelled the judges, though they all 
sympathized with their friend, the lord, to condemn him to death. This sentence 
was afterward commuted to a heavy fine and loss of privileges. 



60 



FEUDAL FRANCE. 



[1270. 




GOLD FLORIN, LOUIS 



form or ceremony, heard the story of their simple wants, and 
redressed their grievances. What the ambition and cunning 

of Philip Augustus had 
commenced, the gentle 
piety of his grandson 
accomplished. Eoyalty 
in Franca was estab- 
lished when the cross 
and the crown were 
borne by a saint. 
The Last Crusade (1270). — Louis's desires still wandered 
back to the Holy Land. In vain his nobles, his people, and 
even the Pope, protested against a new crusade. As he was 
before attracted to Egypt, so now he turned his army toward 
Tunis, to punish the insolence of the Moors. Landing near 
the ruins of Carthage, its crumbling walls were taken by 
assault. The enemy swarmed on every side. It was mid- 
summer. Water was scarce, and fever began to rage. ■ First 
his son and then Louis himself was stricken. Finding his 
last moments approaching, the good king commanded that 
he should be laid on a bed of ashes. Here he crossed his 
arms on his breast, murmured the name "Jerusalem," and 
died. That very day his brother, Charles of Anjou, arrived 
with reinforcements. Alarmed at the silence which pervaded 
the camp, he hastened to the royal tent, where the first object 
that met his eye was the dead body of the king. 

Philip III. (1270 to 1285 = 15 years), eldest son of Louis, 
returned to France, bearing in his train five coffins, those of 
his father, brother, brother-in-law, wife, and son. During his 
reign, by inheritance and marriage, Toulouse, Champagne, 
Alencon, Valois, and Navarre were added to the crown. 
Philip espoused the cause of his uncle, Charles of Anjou,* 

* In 1265 Charles of Anjou, under the protection of the Pope, had conquered Sicily 



1285.] PHILIP THE FAIR. 61 

against Don Pedro of Arragon, and marched into Spain. He 
met with terrible reverses, was borne back in a litter, accom- 
panied by the miserable remnant of his army, and soon after 
died. 

PHILIP IV. 

1235 to 1314 = 29 Years. 

Philip the Fair, son of Philip III., was only seventeen 
years of age at his accession. A boy, like Philip Augustus, 
he had similar lofty ideas of the royal prerogative. Hand- 
some in figure, fascinating in manners, unscrupulous in char- 
acter, cold, proud, haughty, and taciturn in disposition, he 
was an apt pupil in every lesson of diplomacy. Unscrupulous 
attorneys were the tools he used to execute his will. Lawyers 
henceforth held the highest place in Parliament.* Where he 
could not force, he swindled. He levied enormous taxes. He 
passed sumptuary laws (see p. 70). He debased the coinage 
of the country to one-fifth of its legal value, and then refused 
to receive it himself. He banished the Jews, sweeping their 
riches into his coffers. He seized the merchants, and, by 
torture, forced them to buy their liberty. 

and Naples, and taken possession of the crown. His cruelty and want of faith had 
excited the hatred of a naturally vindictive people. A number of Sicilian exiles, 
with John of Procida (-che-), who had been dispossessed of his estates by Charles, 
fled to Arragon. Don Pedro, between whose house and that of France there was a 
bitter feud, was only too glad to aid them in their scheme. In the disguise of a monk 
John made his way back to Sicily, and prepared his countrymen for a terrible revenge. 
On March 30, 1282, at the first sound of the vesper-bell, the infuriated natives of 
Palermo rose en masse, and falling, sword in hand, upon their unsuspecting oppress- 
ors in every part of the city, slaughtered them without mercy. As the news spread 
the same tragedy was repeated in every part of the island ; and, when the first of 
April dawned, there was scarcely a Frenchman alive in Sicily. This massacre is 
known in history as the Sicilian Vespers. Don Pedro of Arragon then landed, and 
was proclaimed king in place of Charles of Anjon. 

* This body, under the Capets, was a supreme council of the immediate feudal 
vassals of the crown, high prelates, and officers of the royal household. Under 
St. Louis it was made a court of justice. It had no power to pass laws, like the 
English Parliament, but only to register and execute them. Philip the Fair fixed it 
at Paris (1302), gathered in it all the courts, and made it the machine of the govern- 
ment. This century has been called the Age of the Lawyers. 



62 FEUDAL FRAKCE. [1293. 

Difficulty with England. — Edward I., king of England, 
was at war with the Scots. Taking advantage of this, Philip 
summoned him before his court to answer charges growing 
out of certain difficulties between some Norman and English 
sailors. Edward sent his brother to arrange the matter. He 
unsuspectingly allowed several towns of Guienne to be given 
up to Philip pending the negotiations. No sooner was the 
crafty French monarch in possession than he announced sail 
Edward's fiefs forfeited. The English king, outraged by this 
violation of good faith, immediately declared war, and formed 
an alliance with Guy, Count of Flanders, whose daughter, 
Philippa, was betrothed to the Prince of Wales.* Philip, in 
return, sent an army into Flanders, whose rich lands he 
coveted, and intrigued with the Scots against Edward. A re- 
conciliation was at last effected between the two kings. Each 
was to desert his allies — Philip, the Scots, and Edward, the 
Flemings — while the Prince of Wales was betrothed to 
Philip's daughter, Isabella, then only six years of age. 

Battle of Courtrai (1302).— Thus left to Philip's mercy, 
Flanders was quickly subdued and annexed to France. Mean- 
while the Flemings, who had at first welcomed the French, f 
were irritated beyond endurance by taxes, forced contribu- 
tions, and the insolence of their new masters. They rose 
in revolt. At dead of night the tocsin sounded through 
all quarters of Bruges, and the panic-stricken Frenchmen 
were massacred on every side. Philip once more ordered his 

* Philip heard of this proposed marriage, and resolved that so rich a dowry should 
not go over the sea to his enemy. Summoning Guy to Paris on "affairs pertaining 
to the kingdom, 1 ' he threw him into the tower of the Louvre. He only gained his 
release by giving Philippa as a hostage. Once in Paris, the prospective young bride 
found herself a captive for life. 

t A few months afterward Philip and his wife made a royal progress through the 
new province. The queen saw with envy the rich dresses of the burghers' wives. 
" 1 thought," said she, at an entertainment given at Bruges, where the toilettes were 
especially magnificent, " I was the only queen present, but I should think then were 
five hundred queens here." 



1302.] 



PHILIP IV 



63 



army into Flanders. They met the Flemings under the walls 
of Courtrai. On one side were 50,000 knights and disci- 
plined soldiers; on the other 20,000 weavers and traders. 
Disdaining to reconnoitre the ground, the horsemen charged 
at full gallop, but they fell headlong into a ditch which lay 




BATTLE OF COURTRAI. 



in front of the Flemish line. The sturdy weavers plied their 
staves upon the floundering mass. That day the flower of 
the French chivalry lay crushed and bleeding in the ditch 
and on the field.* Philip now raised a new army. The 
Flemings were routed in the first engagement (Mons-en- 
Puelle, 1303), but they shut up their shops, abandoned their 
work, and in three weeks poured out, sixty thousand strong. 
Philip, seeing such a host, cried out in dismay : " Does it rain 
Flemings ? " When their herald came with the brief mes- 

* Four thousand— some say even seven thousand — gilt spurs were picked up, and 
hung in the cathedral at Courtrai. Hence this contest has come to be known as 
" The Battle of the Spurs." 



64 



FEUDAL FRANCE 



[130? 



sage, " Peace or war ? " he chose the former, and made an 
honorable treaty. 

Contest with the Pope. — Philip 
and Pope Boniface had long been 
enemies. They came at last to an 
open quarrel. The pope summoned 
the clergy to Rome, and Philip con- 
vened the States-General.* On this 
memorable occasion, which has been 
well styled " the birthday of the na- 
tion," there assembled not alone the 
barons and the bishops, but also 
representatives of the communes, 
thus forming the Three Estates of 
the Eealm. They supported the 
king. The pope's bull was burned. 
Boniface excommunicated Philip. 
The king, through his parliament, 
denounced Boniface as an infidel 
and a heretic. The pope threatened 
to depose the king. At this juncture a conspiracy in Philip's 
favor was organized in Italy. An armed party forced the 
gates of the pope's palace at Anagni, and with brutal indig- 
nities made him a prisoner. Eescued by his friends, Boniface 
hurried to Rome, but, overcome by age, want, and shame, 
soon after died. Benedict XL, his successor, excommuni- 
cated all who had been concerned in the attempt upon the 
late pontiff. At supper, one night, a woman, closely veiled, 
presented him with a basket of figs. He ate them and died 
the next morning. Philip now secured the election of the 
archbishop of Bordeaux, who was pledged to carry out his 
plans. The new pope, Clement V., took up his residence e.t 

* This was the name given to the great national council or congress. 




SOLDIER OF THE TIME OF PHILIP IV. 



1309.] philip IV. 65 

Avignon (1309), where he was largely under the influence of 
the French monarch. 

Suppression of the Templars.— During the crusades 
the Templars bravely fought the 'battles of Christendom. 
They seemed to combine the heroism of the knight with the 
humility of the monk. Since then, however, they were believed 
to have become corrupt, and they had thereby fallen into dis- 
repute. Their haughty spirit offended the king ; their riches 
excited his cupidity. He resolved 
on their destruction. Without any 
warning (October 13, 1307), the 
Templars in all parts of France 
were seized and imprisoned. Ac- 
cused of frightful crimes, many in 
the agonies of the rack confessed 
what they afterward quickly re- 
canted. Over fifty were burned at SEAL 0F THE templars.* 
the stake in Paris at one time. 

The last days of Philip now drew on apace. He had 
accomplished his ends. He had humbled the Church through 
its popes, and feudalism through the Templars. His govern- 
ment daily grew more oppressive. Finally a league having 
been formed to resist his tyranny, Philip promised redress of 
grievances. Soon after he was fatally injured by a fall from 
his horse while hunting in the forest of Fontainebleau. 

Louis X., the Quarrelsome, Philip V., the Long, and 
Charles IV., the Fair, sons of Philip the Fair, in succession 
filled the throne. The eldest reigned only two years. In 
order to fill his empty coffers, he made freedom an article 
of merchandise, and sold it to the serfs. On the accession 
of the second son there was an attempt to support the claims 

* Representing two knights on one horse, indicative of the original poverty of the 
order. 




66 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1314-1328. 

of the daughter of the late king. The States-General decided 
against her, the lawyers who had now gained so much power 
declaring that, according to the Salic law,* no woman was 
eligible to the crown. 

Discontent prevailed. Troops of "pastorals," as they were 
called, under the pretence of being pilgrims to the Holy Land, 
traversed the country. From beggars they became robbers. 
Armed with stones and staves, they murdered all the Jews 
they met. At last these banditti were hunted down and 
massacred like wild beasts. Popular indignation now turned 
against the lepers. They were accused of poisoning the wells. 
No mercy was shown, and they were slain by the pitiless 
sword or perished in the flames. The Jews were accused of 
being their accomplices, and suffered likewise, f Charles IV. 
took the Jews and lepers under his protection. This act of 
charity is almost all we know of his reign. At his death he 
left no male heir to succeed. 

Charles of Valois,J brother of Philip the Fair, had been 
prime minister during these last reigns, and had enjoyed 
almost royal power. His son, Philip, was chosen king, and 
thus the crown passed to the house of Valois.§ 

* The law of the Salian Franks declared that " no part of Salic land could fall to a 
woman,*" as only men could render the service required of a feudal lord. It is a 
curious fact that, while France is the only country in Europe which forbids a woman 
to reign, there is no other in which women have so controlled political affairs. 
Strangely, too, Philip V., who procured the establishment of this custom, and thus 
wronged his niece of her claims, was the first king to suffer by its application. He 
left at his death four daughters and no son. Hence the throne passed to his brother 
Charles, in virtue of the Salic law. Women, however, held all other fiefs. Half of 
the provinces attached to the crown had come to it by marriage. At the coronation 
of Philip V. the crown was supported on his head by the Countess of Artois, as one 
of the peers of France. See Guizofs Hist, of Civ., vol. i., sec. 9. 

t At Chinon, in Touraine, an enormous pit was dug near the castle, a fire lighted 
at the bottom, and one hundred and sixty wretched victims of both sexes were hurled 
into the flames. 

X It has been said of him, as of the English John of Gaunt, that he was the son, 
the brother, the uncle, and the father of kings, but was never a king himself. 

§ It is a noticeable fact that, near the close of the Merovingian line, Charles Martel, 
Mayor of the Palace, gained the management of affairs, and that his son was made 
the first king of the next dynasty. In a similar way Hugh, Count of Flanders, became 



1328.] FEUDAL FRANCE. 67 

Philip IV. (the Fair), brother to Charles, Count of Valois. 

Philip VI. 
John the Good. 

Louis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Isabella, 

(Hutin) (the Long.) (the Fair.) w. of Edw. II. 

Edward III. 

(the Pretender.) 

Summary. — Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, founds a national dynasty. 
Surrounded by great barons, he has little power. The feudal system 
is supreme. France is distracted by constant quarrels between pow- 
erful lords jealous of their rights. The conquest of England by the 
Normans introduces a new element of discord. The ferocity of the 
age is alone alleviated by the romance, of chivalry and the refinements 
of knighthood. The Truce of God stays at times the passions of war. 
The crusades set all France ablaze. The Holy Land is not conquered, 
but great social changes ensue, v Barons barter their estates for a purse 
of gold, people buy their rights, and reckless knights spend their 
strength on foreign soil. Louis the Fat first makes the royal power 
respected. To get help against the nobles, he grants charters, and 
the communes are established. Civil liberty grows apace. Eleanor, 
divorced from her craven-hearted husband, Louis VII., carries to Eng- 
land half the domains of France. Philip Augustus resumes the work 
of his grandfather. Normandy is conquered from the English. The 
battle of Bou vines is gained by the militia. The Albigensians are per- 
secuted, and Languedoc is added to the crown. The gentle St. Louis, 
sitting beneath the oak at Vincennes, wins all hearts, makes peace 
among the warring barons, and renders royalty still stronger: but 
yearning for the East, leaves France, and dies on a foreign shore. 
Philip the Fair, cold, cruel, and crafty, plunders his people and bur- 
dens them with taxes. He humbles the nobility, subdues the pope, 
and destroys the Templars. The people, however, get their first rights 
from a tyrant, and are represented in the States-General. Lawyers 
gain control, and the law becomes supreme. Under his three sons the 
people suffer pitiably. Pastorals infest the country. The Jews are 
massacred. Lepers are murdered. Amid general discontent the direct 
Capetian line ends. It has given birth to Hugh, Louis VI., St. Louis, 

powerful at the end of the Carlovingian line, and his son, Hugh Capet, was the first 
king of the succeeding dynasty. Just so, Charles, Count of Valois. held swa}' as 
prime minister under the reigns of the three sons of Philip the Fair, and his son was 
the first king of the next reigning family. 



68 FEUDAL FRANCE. 

Philip Augustus, and Philip the Fair. It has shaped out a kingdom, 
and laid a firm foundation for the monarchy. 

Condition of Society. — A growing extravagance in dress and the 
expenses attending the grand tournaments greatly increased trade. 
Shops and warehouses had taken the place of the roving peddler who 
supplied the former dynasties. Merchants grew in wealth. Foreign 
commerce began to flourish. Guilds and Trade Corporations, which 
sprang up in the time of Philip Augustus, acquired importance. Under 
St. Louis a Book, of Trades was compiled, containing the rules of one 
hundred different trade associations.* The highways were still in- 
fested by robbers St. Louis passed a law requiring the nobles to guard 
the roads from sunrise to sunset, making them responsible for all the 
robberies committed on travelers in their domains. He set an example 
by himself refunding the value of goods stolen through the negligence 
of his own officers. — Measures of length and contents varied greatly, 
and no uniform standard was known. The ' ' foot of the king " was the 
least varying measure, and was from ten to twelve inches. The pound 
was everywhere in use, but its weight differed in the various cities 
and provinces from twelve to sixteen ounces. The lords generally 
profited by the confusion. 

Manners and Customs. — The nobility grow in extravagance of 
dress and style. Court-robes blaze with gold and silver, pearls and 
precious stones. Over the gown and high, close-sleeved, tight-fitting 
bodice, the ladies wear an open mantle of cloth of gold, slashed here 
and there to show the costly lining. Gold and silver lace, elaborate 
embroideries, and expensive furs are favorite trimmings. Scarlet, 
blue, and reddish-brown are the fashionable colors. Massive belts 
of gold encircle the waist, and the plaited hair, falling down on either 
side of the face, is crowned with a jeweled coronet. At the call of 
the hunting-horn they sit down to sumptuous repasts in vast halls 
hung with brilliant tapestries. " The tables are covered with fringed 
table-cloths, and strewn with sweet-smelling herbs ; one of them, called 
the Great Table, is reserved for persons of distinction. The guests are 
taken to their seats by two butlers, who bring rose-water in silver 
basins for the customary hand-ablution. The Great Table is laid out 
by a butler, with silver salt-cellars, golden goblets with lids, spoons, 
and silver drinking-cups. For the other tables the salt is placed on 
pieces of bread, scooped out for that purpose by the attendants. Some 
dishes are also eaten on large slices of thick bread, which are after- 

* The freedom of each trade was given as a perquisite to some of the king's 
officers. Thus the Lord Chamberlain had command over all the drapers, mercers, 
tailors, shoemakers, and other dealers in wearing apparel; the king's valet and 
barber governed the barbers ; his baker ruled the bakers, etc. 



FEUDAL FRANCE 



69 




ward thrown into vases called drainers. The different courses are 
brought in by varlets and two of the principal squires ; and in wed- 
ding-feasts the bridegroom sometimes walks in front of them." In 
certain repasts connected with chivalry the servants, in 
full armor, are mounted on caparisoned horses. 

One course, which may be seen still reproduced in the 
grand restaurants of Paris, is " composed of sweet dishes, 
colored jellies of swans, of peacocks, or of pheasants, 
adorned with their feathers, having the beak and feet 
gilt, and placed on the middle of the table on a sort of 
pedestal. After the last course the guests wash their 
hands, say grace, and retire to the drawing-room, where 
wines and spices ' for the digestion ' are passed. The 
servants then sit down and dine." — (Menagier de Paris.) 
In this grand dinner the gallant knight eats from his 
lady's plate, who graciously returns the compliment.- 
He also politely offers her the crust from his little loaf 
of bread, that she may soak it in her soup. 

The bourgeois, proud of his wealth and growing im- 
portance, emulates the noble in expenditure. We find a 
certain master-butcher of this time who has four country 
houses besides his Parisian mansion, " all well supplied 
with furniture, drinking-cups, vases, cups of silver and 
of onyx, with silver feet," etc. His wife has "jewels, 
belts, purses, and trinkets," of value equal to $2."),000 
present money ; " long and short gowns, trimmed with 
fur, and three fur mantles." His storehouses are fat 
with possessions ; and lastly, " as if he were a noble, he 
uses a silver seal." We read of a rich Valenciennes 
merchant who visits the king's court in a fur cloak cov- 
ered with gold and pearls. No one offering him a cushion, 
he proudly sits on his cloak. Leaving it behind when 
he departs, a servant reminds him of the fact. "It is not 
the custom in my country for people to carry away their 
cushions with them," he replies, and haughtily walks 
away. — All this is intolerable to the exclusive spirit 
of the aristocracy. They loudly complain to the king. 



STYLUS, t 

(Thirteenth & Four- 
teenth Centuries.) 



* This was thought so great a mark of politeness that a gentleman sitting next a 
lady was considered extremely rude if he did not help himself from her dish. "The 
romance of Perceforest tells of a feast where eight hundred knights had each of them 
a lady eating off his plate. In Launcelot du Lac, a lady, who was troubled with a 
jealous husband, complains that it was a long lime since a knight had eaten off her 
plate.* , — Hallam.— This curious custom perhaps arose from the fact that at fust 
only one cup and plate were given to each couple. 

t The style or stylus was the chief instrument of writing during the Middle 



70 FEUDAL FRANCE. 

Philip the Fair issues his Sumptuary Laws, whereby he makes 
himself the arbiter of dress and diet for all classes. Strict rules 
graduate the breadth and richness of the trimming on ladies' robes and 
gentlemen's cloaks. The price and number, quality and style of all 
garments are carefully denned according to the rank of the wearer. 
The nobles may wear the chaperon or hood large enough to let it hang 
down the back ; the common people will keep to the small sugar-loaf 
affair. " No bourgeois shall have a chariot, nor wear gold, precious 
stones, or crowns of gold and silver." No person can have more than 
one dish of soup and two dishes of meat for dinner or supper. This 
law being sometimes evaded by putting different sorts of meat into the 
same dish, the meddling king hears of the ingenious device, and issues 
an edict expressly forbidding it. He sets an example of economy in 
his own household, after his own fashion. The cloth for the royal 
garments is carefully dealt out to the tailors, and a strict account of 
its use required. The queen, who seems the more frugal of the two, 
is content with four or five lady attendants and two carriages, one for 
herself and one for her maids of honor. After her death expenses 
greatly increase, and we hear of a gilt chariot of state and magnificeut 
displays at the marriages of the three sons. 

Peasants and Serfs. — For the first time we are now able to see the 
peasant in his own home. " A fire of vine branches and faggots blaze 
in the large chimney, which is furnished with an iron pot-hanger, or 
tripod, a shovel, large fire-irons, a cauldron, and a meat-hook. Next to 
the fireplace is an oven, and in close proximity to this an enormous 
bedstead, on which the villain, his wife, his children, and even the 
stranger who asks for hospitality, can all be easily accommodated ; a 
kneading-trough, table, bench, cheese-cupboard, jug, and a few bas- 
kets, make up the rest of the furniture." On the thatched roof of this 
little cottage and the cow-shed near by, the wild cats hunt rats and 
mice. Two small buildings, one for grain and one for hay and straw, 
and a little kitchen -garden, protected by a large watch-dog, adjoin the 
cot. No one is ever idle, and the little ones begin to work when they 
begin to walk. The serf goes to his labor in short woolen trousers, 
and a cloth or skin blouse, fastened by a leather belt, from which hang 
his wallet and a sheath for his knife. His feet are protected by shoes 
or large boots. If it be cold or rainy, he wears a broad-brimmed cap 
of felt or of thick woolen stuff, like the short mantle which falls from 

Ages. With the pointed end the letters were cut on the waxen tablet, while the rounded 
head was used in making erasures. If the writing was to be preserved, it was after- 
ward copied by a scribe on parchment or vellum, with a rude pen made of reed, and 
dipped in a colored liquid. The style was sometimes made of bone or ivory, some- 
times of glass or iron, while those used by persons of rank were made of gold or 
silver, the heads of which were often ornamented with curious figures. 






FEUDAL FRANCE. 71 

his shoulders. In fine weather he goes bareheaded. His farming 
utensils are limited, but he has a wagon "with harness for several 
horses, so as to be able to accomplish the different tasks required of 
him under feudal rights." Umbrellas and covered carriages being still 
unknown, a large waterproof -cape, with sleeves, is a necessary article 
of dress. A special servant, called a porte-chape (carry cape), carries 
this behind his master. The poor folk sling it over their backs, or 
fold it under the arm when it is not needed for service. 



Distinguished JVames of the Capetian £Jra. 

oibetard (1079-1142), a famous scholastic philosopher. At one time 5,000 persons 
attended his lectures. His life, however, was the shipwreck of genius.* 

Suffer (su-zha, 1085-1152), abbe of St. Denis, and the chosen adviser of Louis VI. 
and VII. He was a politician far in advance of his times, sagacious and practical, 
and one of the true founders of France. 

SI. jBernaj'd (1091-1153), " the champion of orthodoxy, the oracle of France, the 
soul of councils, the bulwark of dogma, the reformer of the clergy, and the preacher 
of crusades." 

Jehan de Joinville (1223-1317), seneschal of Champagne, who wrote a history 
of St. Louis. He was the inventor of memoirs for which the French have since 
been so famous. In his chronicle, the Christian, the man of the world, the soldier, 
the friend of the king, gossips on with a minute detail and simple naturalness that 
bring far-off events close to us with a curious reality. 

* His unfortunate love for the beautiful Heloise has served to perpetuate his 
name, and their tomb in the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise, Paris, is still the shrine of 
ill-starred lovers, who keep it constantly piled with wreaths of everlasting flowers. 



72 



FEUDAL FRANCE. 




IV.— THE VALOIS BRANCH. 

1328 to 1589=261 Years. 

PERIOD OF TrJE HUNDRED YE^RS W4R, 

HILIP VI's (1328 to 1350 = 22 
years) ruling passion was a love of 
pomp. The great barons flocked to 
his brilliant court, and in balls, fetes, 
and tournaments, grew careless of 
their liberties and the progress of 
the crown. Even the kings of Na- 
varre, Bohemia, and Majorca forsook 
their own palaces to revel in Philip's 
sumptuous hospitality. Yielding to 

PHILIP VI 

the request of the Count of Flanders 
for help against his revolted subjects, Philip summoned the 
feudal lords, with their retainers, and marched into that 
country. At Cassel (1328) they slew 13,000 out of 16,000 
Flemish weavers who stubbornly resisted their advance. 
Having thus wiped out the disgrace of Courtrai, Philip 
returned to .Paris in great glory. 

"Hundred Years War."— Edward HI. of England, 

Geographical Questions '.—(See maps, pp. 1, 73).— Locate Sluys (slois). Crecy. 
Avignon (a ven-yOn). Azincourt. Vincennes (vin-senz). Bruges. Verneuil. Cre- 
vant. Sur-Yonne. Orleans. Domremy. Vauconleurs. Jargeau (zhar-zhO). Patay'. 
Troyes (trwa). Castillon (te-y5n). Arras. Kosebecque. Leige (leej). Conflans 
(kon-flQii). Peronne (pa-ronn). Montereau. Granson (gran-son). Morat. Nancy. 
Plessis. Bourges (boorzh). Rennes (ren). Amboise (Qnb-waz). Guinegate. Calais 
(ka-la). Bayonne (yon). Cambray. Gbent (gent). Cressy. Toul (tool). Verdun. 
Metz (mets, or mas). St. Quentin (san-k5n-tan.) Vassy. Dreux (drub). Blois 
(blwa). St. Germain (san-zher-man). Rochelle. Courtrai (koor-trfi). Locate 
Guienne (ge-en). Artois (twa). Bern, Bourbon (boor-bon). Anjou (Sn-zhoo). 
Lorraine. Gascony. Cbampaigne. Maine. Cbarleroi (shar-le-rwa). County of 
Burgundy (Franche Comte). Mvernois (ne-ver-nwa). Picardy. Vermandois (ver- 
man-dwa). Beaujeau (bo-zbo). Navarre. 



1328.] 



PHILIP VI. 



73 



whose mother, Isabella, was daughter of Philip the Fair, laid 
claim to the French throne. He contended that, though a 
woman could not inherit the crown herself, she could trans- 




Purple Territory of French King 

lied Territory of Enylixh Ki in, 



FRANCE AT THE TIME OF VALOIS, 



mit the right to her son. To this source of trouble was 
added a disagreement concerning the vassalage exacted by 
the French kings on account of Guienne and other fiefs. The 
contest — laiown as the Hundred Years War — lasted from 

4 



74 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1346. 

1328 to 1453, the historians giving good measure in their 
estimate of this bloody century. There were occasional 
truces, only to enable the rival kings to take breath and 
prepare for a new struggle. 

Commencement.— The storm was long gathering. Ed- 
ward welcomed Robert of Artois,* who had been banished 
from the French court. He also assumed the title of French 
king, and quartered the lilies of France with the lions of 
England. Philip, on his side, interfered with the English 
trade with Flanders, and aided the revolt of Robert Bruce in 
Scotland. A war of succession broke out in Brittany, and 
the rival kings took opposite sides. Edward, with his army, 
hovered for two years about the borders of France. On land 
he gained nothing. At sea, however, he won a great naval 
victory off Sluys f (1340). 

Battle of Crecy (1346). After a brief truce Philip's 
treachery renewed the strife. Having invited the great 
barons of Brittany to a tournament at Paris, he beheaded 
fifteen of them without form of trial. Edward, thereupon, 
invaded France, and marched nearly to Paris, pillaging and 
burning. During the retreat he was overtaken near Crecy 
by the French army. Philip ordered the Genoese archers, 
who were in the van, to immediately charge. Out of breath 
from their rapid march, dazzled by the sun in their faces, 
and with their strings wet from a recent rain, they recoiled 

* Robert of Artois has been called "The stormy petrel of the hundred years war." 
Enraged at not receiving an inheritance to which he laid claim, and vowing ven- 
geance against Philip, he fled to the English court, where he did his utmost to foment 
ill-will. Philip learned with terror that Robert was employing magical arts for his 
destruction, and that he was " envoulted." It was a current superstition that if a 
little waxen image were baptized by a priest, and then pierced with a needle at the 
place where the heart should be, tbe person represented would die from the wcund. 
Demons were evoked in this operation, which was called " envoulting." 

t It is said that when the tidings came to Paris, none dare tell the hasty king the 
bad news till a court-fool bethought him to cry out that the English were cowards. 
When the king asked "Why?" he replied: "Because they did not dare to jump 
boldly into the sea at Shiys as our brave French and Normans did.'" 



1346.] PHILIP VI. 75 

before the storm of English arrows. " Kill the lazy ribalds/' 
shouted the Duke d'Aleii9on. The French knights, dashing 
furiously forward, trampled the hapless Italians under feet. 
In the midst of the confusion the English poured down 
upon the struggling ranks. Eleven princes, 1,200 knights, 
the kings of Bohemia* and Majorca, and 30,000 soldiers 
were slain. Philip, twice wounded, was dragged off the 
field by his attendants, and reached Amiens with only five 
knights. 

The Loss of Calais was one of the fatal results of this 
defeat. After nearly a year's siege, this city was starved to 
surrender. Edward consented to spare the inhabitants if six 
of the principal citizens, barefooted and with halters about 
their necks, should bring him the keys of the town and give 
themselves up to his vengeance. When they appeared, he 
commanded their heads to be struck off. His good Queen 
Philippa threw herself at his feet, and with tears begged 
their lives. The king relented, and taking the burgesses by 
the halters, led them to Philippa, and, "out Of love for her, 
released from death all the men of Calais." 

Condition of the Country.— The Black Death (1348-9), a terrible 
pestilence from the East, now swept over the land. Two-thirds of the 
inhabitants of Provence and Languedoc fell victims. On some days 
eight hundred died in Paris alone. The sweet charities of life were 
forgotten, and all fled who could, leaving a few heroic monks and nuns, 
who devoted themselves to the sick and dying. The Jews were again 
accused of poisoning the wells, and thousands were burnt and mas- 
sacred. Bands of enthusiasts, called flagellants, wandered about, half- 
clothed, and scarifying their shoulders with whips, to take away the 
sins of the world. Devastation everywhere marked the footsteps of 
the English army.f The land lay waste, the ploughs rusted in the 

* The blind king of Bohemia, hearing the sound of the strife, begged his knights 
to lead him forwai'd where he could have a stroke with his sword. So they tied their 
horses 1 reins together and all rode in to death. 

t The spirit in which this war was carried on is shown from the fact that, at the 
beginning, the knights and gentlemen of England, assembled in full court, bound 



76 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1850-1356. 

furrows, and the homes were blackened ruins. Grass grew even in 
the streets of Paris, and many quarters were deserted. Philip tam- 
pered with the coin, so that (1342) its value changed almost weekly, 
alienated the merchants, drove trade to- foreign countries, and insti- 
tuted the gdbelle, a most oppressive tax on salt. 

Death of the King. — While France was thus plunged in 
misery, Philip, whose wife had died of the pestilence, found 
heart to marry the beautiful Blanche of Navarre, and burden 
his impoverished people with fresh taxes for the marriage fes- 
tivities. It was the last act of this gloomy, troubled reign, 
for ho died in the midst of the court gayeties. 



JOHN "THE GOOD."* 

1350 to 1364=14 Years. 

John the G-ood was very like his father on his worst side. 
Versed in the rules of knighthood, he was ignorant of the 
laws of government. He made a royal progress through his 
distracted realm, and imagined that he was adjusting affairs 
by holding tournaments. Gay, proud, rash, and ignorant, it 
was not difficult to foresee his fate when opposed to the prac- 
tical common sense of Edward III. "There were Crecys 
written on every line of his character. " 

Charles the Bad, the powerful king of Navarre, seemed 
born to be the evil genius of France. He was constantly 
exciting opposition to the king. At a great dinner given by 
the Dauphin,! at Rouen, John rushed into the hall with a 

themselves upon the Heron— a touch of conscience, let us hope, prevented them from 
swearing it upon the Gospels— "to ravage and massacre without pity, to spare 
neither mill nor altar, nor relation nor friend.''' — White. 

* The epithet Le ben means properly " the good fellow," and points out an extrava- 
gant, prodigal character. ° 

t During the reign of Philip VI., the province of Dauphiny was given to the eldest 
son of the king. The heir-apparent to the throne thenceforth took the title of 
Dauphin. 



1856.] 



JOHN" THE GOOD. 



77 



body of armed men, and seized the king of Navarre, with 
several of his nobles. The former was imprisoned, the 
latter were executed. The friends of Charles appealed to 
Edward III., who willingly took tip the quarrel, and the 
scarcely slumbering war broke out anew. An army invaded 
Normandy, while the Prince of Wales — known as the Black 
Prince, from the color of his armor — carried fire and sword 
to the heart of the kingdom. 
Battle of Poitiers (1356).— John, with 60,000 men, 




KING JOHN AND HIS SON AT POITIERS. 

eager to avenge the defeat at Crecy, came upon the Black 
Prince near Poitiers. The little English army, 8,000 strong, 
was drawn up on a high hill, accessible only by a deep 
ravine, through which led a narrow road. The hedges on 
either side were filled with archers. As the French knights 
charged at full speed up this lane, they were overwhelmed 
by the shafts of the English bowmen. Disordered, they fell 



78 • FEUDAL FRANCE. [1353. 

back on the main corps below. The Black Prince there- 
upon, bidding his men to mount quickly, charged down the 
hill. The dauphin fled like a craven, with eight hundred 
lances, the primest warriors in the field. The king sprang 
from his horse and fought till he and his youngest son 
Philip, a boy of fourteen, were left almost alone.* The 
losses of Crecy were not avenged, but multiplied. f 

Effect. — The remains of the French army quickly melted 
away. The common soldiers formed companies — free-lancers 
— who plundered friend and foe alike. Great numbers of 
prisoners returned on pledge of enormous ransoms, which 
were squeezed from the hapless peasants. All industry was 
at an end. Only in the cities, defended by walls and ditches, 
was there any safety ; and thither the country folk flocked to 
escape the misery of their homes. 

Attempts to Reform the Government— In this emer- 
gency the dauphin assembled the States-General. Under 
the leadership of Marcel, Provost of Paris, they made a 
determined stand for popular liberty. Men and money were 
voted to meet the national crisis, but on certain conditions. 
Among these were that there should be no more tampering 
with the coin, that no property should be seized for the 
royal service without payment, and that the dauphin should 
not appropriate to his private use the funds raised for the 
public good. Charles agreed to the conditions, but did not 
keep them. Paris rose to resist him. The insurgents, wear- 
ing parti-colored hoods of red and white, broke into the pal- 



* This heroic youth held himself closely to the side of his father, crying out every 
instant : " Father, take care at the right ! Father, take care at the left ! " The king 
was pressed on every side, each one being eager to capture so great a prize. He 
finally surrendered to a renegade French knight, one Denis de Morbeque. 

t The Black Prince conducted his royal captive to England with great pomp and 
true knightly courtesy. When they entered London, he rode bareheaded at the side 
of the king, and at table waited upon him as if they were father and son, instead of 
vanquished and victor. 



1358.] JOHN THE GOOD. 79 

ace, iii the presence of the dauphin, and murdered two of his 
advisers. The dauphin, escaping, declared war. Mistrust 
and jealousy of Parisian authority arose among the cities. 
Marcel, despairing, offered the crown to the king of Navarre.* 
The nobles, alarmed at this manifestation of power by the 
commons, nocked to the royal standard. Civil war ensued. 

The Jacquerie. — Meanwhile, despised by his master, held 
unworthy to wield the lance or the sword, pillaged as if he 
were a Jew, Jacques Bonhomme f grew wild with rage and 
thirst for revenge. He rose at last, and swore death to the 
nobles (1358). Everywhere, at night, the skies were aflame 
with burning castles. Lords and ladies were massacred or 
tortured with brutal barbarity. The war-clad nobles, how- 
ever, soon poured down upon the half-naked peasants, and 
stamped out the insurrection in blood. This defeat was 
fatal to the bourgeoisie— the middle class — who had made 
the peasants their allies. 

The Dauphin marched to Paris; Marcel was slain in a 
tumult, and his party was dissolved. Thus ended this memo- 
rable attempt of the people to check the arbitrary power of 
the crown and the license of the nobles. 

Treaty of Bretigny (1360). — John, weary of his long 
captivity, had agreed to surrender to England half of France. 
These humiliating terms were rejected by the States-General. 
After a year of war a new treaty was made, whereby Edward 
renounced his claim to the French throne, but retained Ca- 
lais, and was accorded Aquitaine, with other rich provinces. 

The Captive King, promising to pay for his ransom 

* If the Salic Law were set aside, his right by descent was better even than that 
of Edward III., as he was a grandson of Louis X., while Edward was only the 
nephew of that king. 

t This was the nickname given to the peasantry by the nobles. A current proverb 
of the time says: "Jacques Bonhomme (James Goodfellow) never parts with his 
money unless he is well cudgelled ; but Jacques Bonhomme will pay, for he shall be 
beaten. " 



80 FEUDAL FEAICE. [1360. 

3,000,000 crowns, returned to his country, to find it devas- 
tated by war, smitten by pestilence, and infested by robbers. 
Afterward one of his sons, who had been left as his hostage, 
escaped to Paris. John, declaring that "good faith, if ban- 
ished from the earth, ought to find itself in the heart of 
kings," went back to London. Here he died (1364). 



CHARLES V. (THE WISE). 

1361 to 1380 = 16 Years. 

Charles the Wise was very unlike his father. He had 
no taste for knightly exercises, but was studious and unsocial. 
Weak,* pale, mean-looking, and cowardly, he was yet cun- 
ning, clear of aim, and coldly unfaltering in earning out his 
designs. His famous saying : " Lordship is better than glory," 
reveals his determination to have the power as well as the 
honor of a king. His aim was to regain his kingdom from 
the English and to raise royalty above the nobles. Shut up 
in his closet f at Paris, he planned what others executed. 

The Free Lances. — France was now overrun by thou- 
sands of disbanded soldiers, who would neither return to 
their own homes nor obey the laws. They quartered them- 
selves among the farmers, where they committed every ex- 
cess, or, gathering in companies, besieged and ransomed 
towns. In self-defence bulwarks were raised about cities, 
villages, and houses. Every church became a fortress, and 
every chateau a stronghold. 

War against Don Pedro. — Unable to subdue, Charles 

* Charles the Bad (of Navarre), in return for his arrest at Rouen, had mixed poison 
in the dauphin's food. The prince's life was saved by opening an issue in his arm, 
which was never allowed to heal. 

t The superstition of the times, unable to account for his success in any other 
way, accused him of magical arts, and so his title, the Wise, came to have a peculiar 
significance. Edward said that of all his enemies Charles V. was the one who never 
appeared against him, and yet gave him the most trouble. 



1385.] CHARLES V. 81 

decided to employ these marauders. So Du Gaesclin, his 
best general, and himself a Free Lance, rallied his old com- 
panions, and led them across the Pyrenees, to help Henry 
of Castile against the oppressions of his brother, Pedro the 
Cruel. The detested Pedro was quickly expelled, and Henry 
seated upon the vacant throne. Pedro, however, fled to the 
Black Prince, who marched to his relief, defeated the French 
army, and captured Du Guesclin.* The Black Prince re- 
turned to Aquitaine with the disgrace of having restored to 
his throne the wicked Pedro. Besides, forced to raise heavy 
taxes for the support of the war, he alienated his subjects, 
who appealed to the French king for help. Charles saw his 
opportunity. The Black Prince was ill of a disease con- 
tracted in Spain, and King Edward III. was old and feeble. 

The Hundred Years War Renewed. — Charles the 
Wise now summoned the Black Prince to appear before him, 
as his suzerain, to answer the complaints of his subjects, f . 
" We shall come," indignantly returned the hero of Crecy and 
Poitiers, " but with helmet on head and with 60,000 men." 
Borne on a litter at the head of his army, he captured the 
city of Limoges, but stained his memory by brutally putting 
to death 3,000 inoffensive citizens. From this massacre, from 
blackened ruins and corpses of warriors and women, the 
prince was borne home to die. The English army, deprived 
of its great leader, met with constant reverses. The French 
no longer rushed headlong at the enemy as in the days of 

* The Prince promised to release him for 100,000 gold florins. The Princess of 
Wales herself gave 20,000, and the brave Chandos, the English rival of Du Guesclin, 
offered his own purse. The French general was set free on his parole to raise the 
balance. Having secured the money, Guesclin was on his return when he met ten 
poor knights who were unable to raise their ransom. He gave them all he had, and 
went back to prison empty-handed. Charles V. afterward paid the amount, and 
secured the services of his great captain. 

t To fully prove his intention of war, Charles also sent letters of defiance to the 
king of England. The message and the messenger equally astonished Edward and 
his court, for it was sent by the hands of a kitchen page. 



82 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1373-1380. 

Philip VI. and John. They simply hung on the flanks of 
the English army, cutting off the stragglers, and harassing 
it at every turn. France recovered nearly all her provinces. 
Edward III. dying, left his sceptre to a child, Kichard II. 
Hardly was the great king cold in his coffin when the French 
fleet was ravaging the English coast, burning and plunder- 
ing, and this, too, only twenty years from the battle of Poitiers. 

Government. — Charles never forgot the excesses of the 
common people while he was dauphin, and never trusted 
them. He convoked the States-General but once, and then 
he was sure of no opposition, as he was about making war 
against England. He never adulterated the coin. He pun- 
ished robbers, and made traveling safe on the jHiblic roads. 
He created a navy. He encouraged letters and the arts, and 
rewarded merit wherever found. The Eoyal Library, which 
he established at Paris, contained at his death 910 volumes — 
a rich collection for those days. 

Charles V.'s last years were full of trouble. Kevolts 
broke out in Brittany and Languedoc. Sects arose in the 
Church. Du Guesclin, now Constable of France, while be- 
sieging a castle in Auvergne, was stricken by death * (1380). 
The king survived his famous general only a few months. 

CHARLES VI. (THE WELL-BELOVED). 
1380 to 1422=42 Years. 

Charles VL, at his coronation, was a beautiful boy of only 
twelve years. His fickle disposition, easy good-nature, and 
love of show, gave no promise for the future. 

I. Rule of the Guardians. — He fell to the guardianship 

* The governor of the fortress had promised to surrender on a certain clay. At 
the appointed time, true to his word, he struck his flag, marched out his garrison, 
and laid the keys of the castle on the heiVs coffin. 



1382.] CHAELES VI. 83 

of four princes of the blood — his uncles — the Dukes of Anjou, 
Berri, Bourbon, and Burgundy. Their tyrannical sway soon 
plunged the people into misery and anarchy. 

Battle of Rosebecque (1382). — Burgundy, who soon 
gained the direction of affairs, had married the heiress of the 
Count of Flanders, and was eager to put down a new revolt 
of the Flemings against their feudal lord. The nobles en- 
couraged the design, as the Flemish burghers favored the 
popular risings in the French cities. The boyish king, 
pleased with the prospect of a campaign, unfurled the ori- 
flamme, and accompanied an army into Flanders. At Kose- 
becque he found the Flemings, 50,000 strong, drawn up in a 
solid square phalanx. The French knights, with their heavy 
mailed horses and long lances, dashed upon the dense mass 
on either flank. The Flemings had tied themselves together 
to strengthen their lines, and were unable to fight. It was 
not a battle, but a massacre. Thousands perished without 
a wound. The nobles were triumphant. The Flemish cities 
were given up to fire and plunder. 

Uprising of the People Crushed (1383). — Paris was 
the first of the communes to feel the vengeance of the aris- 
tocracy. Early in this reign it had revolted against the 
despotism of the Duke of Anjou, and demanded the removal 
of some of the most oppressive taxes. It had then been 
quieted with fair promises. Now was the time for revenge. 
On the return of the king, though the gates were open, he 
ordered a breach made in the walls, through which he en- 
tered as into a conquered city, passing through the streets 
helmet on head and lance in hand. Three hundred of the 
richest citizens were sent to the scaffold, and the rest pur- 
chased their lives by the payment of heavy fines, which went 
to the royal dukes. Other cities received as cruel a punish- 
ment. 



84 FEUDAL FE AN CE. [1386-1392. 

Preparations to Invade England (1386) were now 
made on a gigantic scale. Fourteen hundred ships were 
collected, "enough/' avers ■ Froissart, " to reach from Calais 
to Dover." After a prodigious expense the attempt was 
abandoned. The soldiers, disbanded without pay, pillaged 
the whole country on their way home. France was more 
exhausted by this, says the old chronicler, than it would have 
been by a long war. 

II. Rule of the King (1388-1392).— Eight years of die- 
aster found Charles twenty-one years of age. He now opened 
his eyes and saw his kingdom a wreck. The finances were 
plundered, justice was abused, schools were abandoned, roads 
were impassable, and many castles in the heart of the king- 
dom were held by brigands. He dismissed his royal guard- 
ians, and placed at the head of the council the constable 
Du Clisson, friend and successor of Guesclin. All hailed the 
advent of better times. Charles, however, with his beautiful 
but dissolute queen, Isabella of Bohemia, was soon absorbed 
in frivolity and dissipation. The princes plotted against the 
new ministers, whom they contemptuously styled " monkeys." 
Clisson was stabbed on his way home from the palace. The 
assassin escaped to the Duke of Brittany, wdio refused to give 
him up to justice. Charles swore vengeance, and marched 
northward with his army. 

Insanity of the King (1392). — On a sultry day in Au- 
gust, as the army w T as passing through a deep forest, a tall 
and ghastly man rushed suddenly out from behind a tree, 
seized the king's bridle, and exclaimed, in a terrible voice: 
"Go no further, King! Thou art betrayed!" Charles, 
weak from recent illness, was greatly agitated. Soon after- 
ward they entered upon a sandy plain, where the burning 
rays of the vertical sun poured full upon them. Here one of 
the pages falling asleep, accidentally dropped his lance upon 



1392.] 



CHARLES VI 



85 



his companion's helmet. The brain of the poor king was 
startled out of reason by this sudden clatter, Bushing on 




CHARLES AND THE WILD MAN. 



his attendants, he sought to slay them all. He was at last 
secured and carried back — a maniac* 

III. Rule of the Factions.— For thirty years after this 
sad event the history of France affords a picture of a madman 
sitting on the throne, while princes without private honor or 
public virtue struggle around him for the spoils which can 
be wrung from an unhappy people. Each of the princes 
tried to get possession of the king and rule in his name. 



* Charles partially recovered from this terrible stroke, but afterward suffered a 
serious relapse. At a masked ball given at the court (1393), the king and five of 
his nobles were disguised as savages, in close-fitting dresses, covered with pitch 
and tow to reserfible hair. The young Duke of Orleans, in sport, approached these 
grotesque figures with a lighted torch. Their inflammable costumes caught fire. 
Charles was rescued, but four of his companions were burned to death. One saved 
his life by jumping into a tub of water, which fortunately was near by. 



86 FEUDAL FEAKCE. [1392-1415. 

Unfortunately for France his insanity had lucid intervals, so 
that the dukes could seem to be his agents, and shelter them- 
selves behind his authority and the pity his misfortune ex- 
cited. Burgundy first seized the power. Bitter animosity 
arose between him and the Duke of Orleans, brother to the 
king, who had gained great influence at court, and rivalled 
his uncle in rapacity and crime. 

The Burgundians and Armagnacs {man-yac).— All 
France, at last, ranged itself in two parties, Burgundian and 
Orleanist — afterward called Armagnac.* The Burgundians 
pretended to espouse the popular cause, and were friendly to 
England ; the Orleanist was the aristocratic side, and nursed 
the opposition to England. 

Assassination of Orleans (14.07). — On the death of 
Burgundy the dukedom fell to his son, John the Fearless. 
By the intercession of their uncle, Duke of Berri, the two 
cousins were reconciled, attended mass, and took the com- 
munion together. Three days afterward the Duke of Orleans 
was waylaid and murdered in the streets of Paris. John 
attended the funeral and held the pall of his victim. Sus- 
picion being excited he fled, but soon returned, and openly 
justified his crime. Paris received him with transports of 
joy. Even the king publicly pardoned the murderer of his 
brother. 

Effect— The contest between the rival parties now grew 
more bitter than ever. It was the old hatred between the 
nobles and the common people, inflamed by private rivalries 
and rapacity. All patriotism died in the heat of factional 
rage. 

Battle of Azincourt (1415).— Henry, deeming this a pro- 

* Bernard, Count of Armagnac, brought the Gascon free-lances to the help of the 
next Duke of Orleans, his son-in-law. He became the real head of the party, which 
was named after him. 



1415-1419.] CHAELESVI. 87 

pitious moment, renewed the claims of England to the crown 
of France, and invaded the country. Even the presence of the 
national enemy could not reconcile the jealousies of the con- 
tending parties. The Armagnacs would not allow the Bur- 
gundians to join their ranks. The burghers from the cities 
offered their help, but, to quote an old chronicler, were < ; vili- 
fended and despised." 

The army which at Azincourt barred Henry's advance was 
a host of nobles. The French were five times as numerous 
as the English, but were drawn up between two thick woods, 
so that they could not deploy their lines, while in front were 
newly-ploughed fields, wet with a fortnight's rain. The 
knights, as usual, charged with reckless bravery, but they 
were checked by the rapid volleys of arrows, while their 
horses wallowed in the mud. The English now rushed for- 
ward with battle-axe, sword, and pike upon the struggling 
mass. Of the 10,000 Frenchmen who fell on that terrible 
day, four-fifths were of gentle blood. Henry returned to 
England with his captives, who, as at Crecy and Poitiers, 
outnumbered their victors.* 

The Rival Factions. — The Armagnacs were weakened 
by this fearful blow, but the desperate fight of the factions 
was unabated. The queen joined the Burgundians. The 
dauphin was the tool of the Orleanists. Paris, conquered by 
the Burgundians, ran with blood. The two eldest sons of 
the king were said to have been poisoned. Great officers 
were seized and imprisoned till ransom was paid. Estates 
were forcibly taken and held by pow T er of the sword, 
without even a pretence of law or right. Barons kept their 

* During the night preceding the hattle Henry commanded silence in his camp, on 
the penalty of the loss of his horse to a gentleman and an ear to a private soldier. 
The French nobles, sure of success, spent the hours in rioting and feasting. They 
even gambled for the ransoms of the English prisoners they were to capture on the 
morrow. 



88 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1419-1422. 

retainers on the plunder of the neighboring country, and 
peaceful citizens who ventured to travel were inhumanly tor- 
tured until they yielded their possessions. Henry again 
crossed the channel, captured Rouen, and threatened Paris. 

Assassination of Burgundy (1419). — The princes, in 
the face of this imminent danger, thought of reconciliation. 
The dauphin and the Duke of Burgundy met for conference. 
The latter doffed his plumed hat and bent his knee before 
the dauphin. At that instant an Orleanist leaped the barrier 
and struck the duke dead at the feet of his prince. The 
consequences were fatal. Philip the Good, son of the mur- 
dered duke, hastened at once to the English camp. 

The Treaty of Troyes (1420) was concluded soon after. 
Henry was declared regent, and married Catherine, daughter 
of Charles VI., with the understanding that, on the death 
of the king, the crown of England and Erance were to be 
united. So general were the detestation and fear of the civil 
war, that this surrender of the nation to a foreigner was 
hailed with acclamation in Paris and the north of France. 
The south, however, remained faithful to the Armagnacs, 
who were now recognized as the true French party. 

Death of Henry and Charles.— In the midst of his tri- 
umph Henry died, leaving the crown to his infant son. Two 
months afterward the hapless Charles was borne to his grave. 

CHARLES VII. (THE VICTORIOUS). 

1422 to 1461=39 Years. 

Henry VI., of England, was proclaimed king at Pans, 
with great pomp, the Duke of Bedford acting meanwhile 
as regent. The dauphin was also crowned* by his party. 

* The English termed him "King of Bo-urges," as he fixed his headquarters in 
that city. 



1422.] CHARLES VII. 89 

Idle, good-natured, and listless, Charles was as incapable as 
his unfortunate father of saving the country. His affairs 
steadily grew more desperate.* He lost the battles of Ver- 
neuil and Orevant-sur-Yonne. The regent had besieged Or- 
leans, and that city — the last refuge of Chaiies ; s party — had 
offered to surrender. The disastrous " Day of the Herrings"! 
seemed to give the final blow to his cause. France, however, 
had seen her bitterest hour.t A deliverer was at hand — 
Jeanne Darc.§ Charles was at Chinon, when it was an- 

* The annals of the time record that the king was actually in want of hoots, the 
shoemaker refusing to furnish them until he was paid. 

t This was a hattle fought by the French and Scotch, who made a sally from the 
city to intercept a convoy of salted herrings en route to the English camp for the use 
of the army during Lent. The barrels of fish were broken open by the artillery and 
their contents scattered. 

% King and peasant were alike miserable. u There appeared nothing but a horrible 
confusion, poverty, solitariness, and feare. The lean and bare laborers in the country 
did terrifie, even theeves themselves, who had nothing left them to spoile but the 
carkasscs of those poore, miserable creatures, wandering up and downe like ghostes 
drawne out of their graves. Even the cattett; accustomed to the larume bell, the signe 
of the enemy 's approach, icould at its sound run home of themselves.'''' — (De Serres.) 
The open land from the Loire to the Somme was a desert overgrown with wood and 
thickets ; wolves fought over the bodies in the burial-grounds of Paris. In the Ceme- 
tery of the Innocents, crammed with the pestilential dead, the wretched people in- 
dulged in the wildest orgies, and danced over the graves of the happier ones who 
had closed their eyes on their country's misery. 

§ Jeanne came from a humble family in Domremy. From childhood she had her 
rapt moods ; and, when tending her little flock of sheep in the wood, would often 
slip away from her companions to muse in silence or to pray. After her day's work 
was over, she would spend hours in quiet contemplation before the altar in the little 
village church. There was a current prophecy that France, which had been ruined 
by a woman (Isabella), should be saved by a woman. In Jeanne's country the popu- 
lar version was that the maid was to come from the marches of Lorraine. This 
thought, nursed in the heart of the imaginative girl, grew into a vivid hope, then 
into a daring expectation. She fasted often and long. Her own account is that, 
" when she was thirteen years old, being in the garden alone one hot sttmmer day, 
suddenly a great light shone upon her, and she heard a voice saying : v Jeanne, the 
King of Heaven hath chosen thee to restore France.' " From that time she began to 
"hear voices and see visions." She treasured her secret for four years, meantime 
developing physically into a magnificent womanhood. Then her time had come, she 
said. The voices bade her "raise the siege of Orleans, and conduct the prince lo 
Rheims to be crowned." " I would rather stay at home and spin by my poor mother's 
side," she affirmed, " but go I must, for no one else in the world, neither king nor 
duke, can recover this realm of France." The commander of Vaucouleurs, to whom 
the first appeal was made, replied : " Box the girl's ears and send her home." Noth- 
ing daunted, Jeanne persevered, until at last an escort was provided, and she started 
on her journey of one hundred and fifty leagues to meet the prince. At the same 
time, for her safety and convenience, she assumed male attire. 



90 



FEUDAL FRAKCE 



[1429. 



nounced that a rustic maiden, who professed herself divinely 
commissioned to save France, desired an audience. Jeanne 
Dare, on entering, walked directly to him, although he was 
among a crowd of nobles. "I am not the king, that is he/' 
said Charles, -pointing to a courtier who was dressed to per- 
-^X. :/%\ sonate him. "You 

are the king and 
none other," replied 
the maid, kneeling 
before him. " The 
King of Heaven 
sends me to succor 
you, and to con- 
duct you to Kheims 
for your corona- 
tion." Charles was 
surprised at this 
recognition, and, 
upon further ques- 
tioning her, de- 
clared that she 
seemed to know the secrets of his heart. A committee was 
appointed to examine her religious faith. Her simplicity and 
straightforwardness swept away all prejudice. Her enthu- 
siasm won the hearts of the soldiers. Eude warriors were 
softened by her gentle piety, and in her presence checked the 
oath that trembled on their lips. 

The Maid at Orleans. — Soon, clad in armor, bearing a 
silken banner,* and mounted on a white charger, Jeanne led 

* This she loved "forty times better than her sword," she said, for her " mission 
was not to kill, but to lead brave men to battle, .and to cheer them on, in God's 
name." Her " voices" had told her that an ancient sword, with five crosses on the 
blade, by waiting for her, buried behind the altar in a church at Fierbois. Search 
was there made, and such a weapon was indeed found. Her banner had a white 
ground, besprinkled with the lilies of France. On one side was a figure of the 




JEANNE DARC — JOAN OF ARC. 



1429.] 



CHARLES VII. 



91 



an army to the relief of Orleans. She entered the city with- 
out opposition,* and forthwith headed the sallies against 
the enemy. Wounded, she fainted, but soon recovering, 
plucked out the arrow and rushed again to the front. The 

French were swept along 
I as by supernatural im- 
" pulse. The English, be- 
lieving her a veritable 
witch, ran at her ap- 
proach. In nine days after 
her arrival the regent 
broke up camp and fled, 
abandoning baggage and 
artillery. 




clip 



THE CROWNING OF CHARLES AT RHEIMS. 



Charles Crowned at Rheims (1429).— The Maid of 
Orleans, as she was thenceforth called, now urged the king 
to march through the English line of possession to Rheims. 

Saviour in the clouds, holding the world in His hands ; on the other was an image 
of the Blessed Virgin, and the words Jhesus Maria. 

* "The priests, the chants, the mysterious banner, and the peculiar apparel of the 
maid, struck the English with a superstitious fear. The generals, seeing the dispo- 
sition of their troops, kept them shut up in their camps and fortresses."— Martin. 



92 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1429. 

The generals protested, but Jeanne replied that her "voices" 
commanded it. The soldiers believed in her, and the won- 
derful march began. Jargeau was stormed. At Patay the 
English were defeated, and their general, the celebrated Tal- 
bot, captured. Troyes resisted a few days ; then, struck with 
sudden terror, surrendered. Eheims was evacuated. The 
royal army entered, and the next day Charles was anointed 
and crowned, Jeanne standing by his side, and holding her 
sacred banner in her hand- 
Capture of the Maid. — Jeanne's mission was now ended, 
and she longed to return home, and lead the cattle and feed 
the sheep as of old. But her aid had become too valuable to 
the king and his generals, and she reluctantly consented to 
remain. She was surrounded, however, by those who were 
jealous of her success. Treachery was rife, and Charles him- 
self, fickle and pleasure-loving, listened to her enemies. Pre- 
cious time was wasted. An unsuccessful attack on Paris 
followed. In an encounter at Compiegne she was taken 
prisoner. 

Death of the Maid. — No one seemed to care for her 
now. Her ungrateful king made no sign. Her Burgundian 
captors sold her to her English foes for 10,000 francs. She 
was confined in a dungeon at Eouen, and afterward tried for 
sorcery. Day after day learned judges endeavored to entrap 
this simple girl. Her apt replies amazed the spectators, 
many of whom were in sore doubt whether she were a saint 
or a witch. She was condemned and burnt at the stake 
(May 30, 1431).* 

English Reverses. — The Maid was more fatal to Eng- 
land when dead than when bearing her white banner on the 

* Twenty-seven years afterward tardy justice was done to her memory. A new 
trial was held, the sentence was reversed, and a cros3 erected on the scene of her 
martyrdom. 



1435.] CHARLES VII. 93 

battle-field. The patriotism which she had evoked grew 
apace. The Duke of Burgundy at last declared for Charles. 
The famous treaty of Arras (1435) settled the terms of this 
reconciliation, and the Burgundians and Armagnacs embraced 
as brothers. The regent dying a few days afterward, the 
English were left without a head. Paris opened its gates to 
the king's heralds (1436), and the garrison of the Bastille 
was forced to surrender. 

End of the Hundred Years War. — Thus far Charles 
had been borne on to success by others. With his rising 
fortune there came a change in his character.* He now 
evinced a vigilance, energy, and nobility no one had sup- 
posed him to possess. On the other hand, Henry VI. was 
incompetent, and England was rent by factions. Charles 
eagerly seized the chance thus offered. Under the brave 
Dunois (nwd), the famous "Bastard of Orleans," the French 
soon recovered Normandy and Gascony. The gallant Talbot, 
who had been released, was killed at Castillon (1453), and his 
cause died with him. Of all the possessions of the Edwards 
on the continent, the patrimony of William the Conqueror, 
the dower of Eleanor, the conquests of Henry V., there was 
left scarcely anything save the city of Calais. 

Government. — Charles, with his reviving power, set him- 
self energetically to the task of reorganizing his kingdom. 
The States-General were convened ; the nobles were forbid- 
den to enrol troops without the royal consent ; and a perma- 
nent tax was established to maintain a regular army. The 
new military enforced order. The Free Lances were bidden 
to disperse; in a fortnight they had disappeared. The old 

* This change has been attributed to Agnes Sorrel, the king's favorite. Her in- 
fluence was undoubtedly great in arousing him from his apathy, but it was more 
than supplemented by a judicious weeding out of worthless advisers, and the sub- 
stitution in their place of upright soldiers like Richemont, and of prudent statesmen 
like Jacques Cosur. (See next page.) 



94 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1438. 

lawless warfare of the feudal barons was at an end ; the era 
of standing armies had commenced. An ordinance, known 
as the Pragmatic Sanction, made the Gallican Church more 
independent of the pope, and thus more national. Two 
noblemen during these days obtained power at court — Riche- 
mont (resh-moisr), the constable, and the merchant-prince, 
Jacques Coeur * (zhiik kur). France, feeling a new sense of 
security, awoke to fresh energies. 

Charles VII's last days, however, were full of sorrow. 
His habitual indolence, returning, gave uncertainty to his 
acts, while he more and more became the tool of worthless 
favorites. The dauphin revolted against him, and finally fled 
to the court of Burgundy. Charles, in constant dread of his 
son's plots, and believing that he intended to poison him, at 
last refused food and died of starvation. 

LOUIS XI. 

1461 to 1483 = 22 Years. 

Louis XL was thirty-eight years of age when he ascended 
the throne. Selfish, cunning, cruel,- false to all sense of 
honor and affection, he has been called " the wickedest son 
and the worst father in French annals." f United with all 
these despicable traits was such gross superstition that it 
would be ludicrous, were it not associated with most hideous 

* This famous citizen is said at one time to have transacted more business than 
all the other merchants of France. Called to the charge of the state finances, he car- 
ried his clear head into the management of public affairs. He lent from his own 
coffers the money— 24,000.000 francs— to reconquer Normandy. "Sire, all that I have 
is yours, " he said to the king. The courtiers, jealous of his influence, instituted a 
process against him ; they divided the spoils, and shut him up in a convent at Beau- 
caire. His old clerks joined to rescue him, and conducted him to Rome. 

+ To this might be added "the most brutal husband." Married in his youth to 
the beautiful Margaret of Scotland, he so succeeded in breaking her heart, deliber- 
ately and vulgarly crushing out all the poetry and hope of her young life, that, being 
attacked with an illness which might easily have been cured, she refused medicines 
and chose to die. 



1461.] 



LOUIS XI. 



95 



crimes.* Louis was a politician and a diplomatist. Where 
his predecessors would have used force, he resorted to bribery 
and fraud. His great aim was to overthrow the system of 
feudalism, and to reduce the nobles and the princes of the 
blood, who had regained 
their power during the 
anarchy of the preced- 
ing reigns. Henceforth 
there was to be no 
tyrant in France but 
Louis XL 

"League of the 
Public Good" (1404). 
— The severe measures 
which Louis adopted 
greatly irritated the 
nobles. To divide the 
two most formidable 
of these foes, the Duke 
of Brittany and the 

*> LOUIS XI. 

Count of Charolois — 

afterward known as Charles the Bold — Louis offered to them 
both the government of Normandy. Instead of quarreling 
over it as he had intended, they united and formed a con- 
spiracy to dethrone him. After an indecisive battle at Mont- 
Hurl, Louis had recourse to his usual arts. Plentiful bribes 
scattered the conspirators, and the Treaty of Conflans relieved 
him from immediate danger. Afterward, by craftily evading 
and repudiating its terms, he escaped w T ith little loss of land 

* Among his absurd acts, he bestowed on the Holy Virgin the titles of Countess of 
Boulogne and colonel of the Royal Guards ! Whenever he was planning any detest- 
able crime he redoubled his devotions, and was to be seen running around to all 
the shrines in the vicinity. '•' People trembled when they saw the meanly-dressed, 
slouch-gaited, sallow-faced man traveling from altar to altar, and sticking his bonnet 
full of little images of saints, for a talc of blood was sure to follow." 




96 FEUDAL FRANCE. [146G. 

or money, and only the very trifling forfeit of his royal word. 
Soon he was not only in quiet possession of Normandy him- 
self, but had compelled the Dukes of Berri and Brittany to 
desert the League and join in his support. 

Louis at Peronne. — Charles the Bold, by the death of 
his father, Philip the Good (1467), became Duke of Bur- 
gundy.* Indignant at the defection of his allies, he still 
demanded of the king the fulfilment of the treaty of Con- 
flans. Louis, relying on his powers of persuasion, visited the 
duke at Peronne. Scarcely had he arrived when news came 
of a revolt which had broken out at Liege, in the duke's 
Flemish territory. Charles, finding that it was instigated by 
Louis, was greatly enraged, confined the king to his room, 
and even threatened his life. Louis only recovered his liberty 
on the most abject terms. To crown all, he was compelled 
to go with the duke to attack Liege. Here he was forced 
to hear the citizens, whom his own money and agents had 
aroused, shouting:. "The king forever! France forever!" 
to see the city stormed and sacked ; and then to accompany 
Charles to the old cathedral, to give thanks for the victory. 
After this humiliation he was allowed to depart, f 

Struggle between Louis and Charles.— Henceforth 

* Burgundy is a kingdom which has now almost vanished from history. It com- 
prised at this time the Duchy of Burgundy, the county of Burgundy (Franche comte), 
the Mvernois, and a great part of Picardy. Its natural boundaries were quite as Avell 
marked as those of any other kingdom. The country was rich and populous. There 
seemed no reason why it might not become an independent state, lying as a break- 
water between France and Germany. This idea Charles steadily pursued throughout 
his meteoric life. 

t Entering Paris, he found hung along his route lines of cages filled with jays and 
magpies, from whence came shrill cries of " Peronne," with various derisive epithets. 
He soon discovered that his favorite cardinal, La Balue, was the friend and adviser 
of Charles, and had proposed the degradation he had endured at Peronne. " The son 
of the tailor in the red stockings had outwitted the son of St. Louis with the crown 
on his head. 11 La Balue was imprisoned in an iron cage, about eight feet square, and 
kept in the castle of Loches for eleven years, like a wild beast in his den. As an in- 
stance of the frequent recoil of cruelty, the instrument of his torture was one of his 
own invention. 



1472-77.] 



LOUIS XI 



97 



there was bitter enmity between the king and his powerful 
vassal. The complications, " never ending, still beginning," 
are wearisome enough. Charles, rash and impetuous, was no 
match for his cold, cunning adversary. Edward IV. of Eng- 
land crossed the channel with a fine army to the help of the 




A MOVABLE IRON CAGE. 
(Fifteenth Century.) 



duke, his brother-in-law, but Louis offered him 75,000 crowns 
down, an annual pension, and the dauphin as a husband to 
his daughter Elizabeth. These arguments were irresistible, 
and the English returned. The French called this peace the 
"Treaty of the Merchants." 

Charles and the Swiss. — At last Charles turned his 
arms against the Swiss, who were secretly instigated by 
Louis. These gallant mountaineers routed the Burgundians 
at Granson* (1476), and again at Morat. Turning then to 



* Charles was fond of comparing himself with Hannibal. "We are getting well 
Hannibalized to-day, my lord,''' said the court-fool as they rode off from the field of 
Granson. Never had such riches greeted the eyes of these simple peasant people 
as they found in the camp of Chai-les. Gold was so plentiful that they distributed it 
in hats. Precious embroidery was used to decorate their miserable huts. A diamond, 
weighing 139| carats, was picked up in the road and sold for a florin. The bones of 
the Burgundians who fell at Morat were thrown into a mound, which remained for 
^hree centuries as a ghastly memento of this fearful day. 

5 



98 FEUDAL FEAKCE. [1477. 

conquer Lorraine;, Charles was defeated at Nancy, and his 
dead body was found the next day with his face frozen in a 
pool of water. Thus perished the last Duke of Burgundy. 

Mary of Burgundy, the beautiful daughter of Charles, 
was his only heir. Louis, disregarding her claims, at once 
seized upon the Duchy of Burgundy and Franche Comte, 
and sought to marry her to the dauphin, although she was 
twenty and he a sickly boy of eight years. Not content with 
this, he fomented revolts in her Flemish domains. Mary, 
disgusted at his duplicity, gave her hand to Maximilian of 
Austria. War ensued, and Maximilian gained the battle of 
Guinegate (1479). Mary's premature death led to the peace 
of Arras* (1482). Her infant daughter, Margaret, was then 
betrothed to the dauphin, although he was already promised 
to the English Princess Elizabeth, who had in consequence 
assumed the title of Dauphiness of France. 

Government. — One wearies of reading how, during these 
years, by treachery, murder, execution, and assassination, 
Louis subdued the feudal lords one by one. Yet from his 
tortuous policy much good came to France. The enemies 
he subdued were her enemies. He gave a fatal wound to 
chivalry. He extended the frontiers to the Alps. He made 
travel safe, maintained public peace, and protected commerce 
and manufactures. Parliament became independent, schools 
acquired new life, and letters new consideration. He had, 
moreover, some good traits. It must have been in virtue of 
them that he obtained from the Pope the title of "Most 
Christian Majesty." He was industrious and indefatigable ; 
he was attentive to the common people ; and he spared the 
blood of his soldiers. 



* The former treaty at Arras (1435), it will be remembered, between Charles VII. 
and Philip the Good, was in the duke's favor, and added to his possessions. The 
present treaty was in Louis's favor, and secured to him Burgundy and Artois. 



1483.] CHARLES VIII. 99 

The last days of Louis were spent in the society of 
his hangman, barber, and physician. He recoiled with terror 
at the thought of death, which he had inflicted on so many. 
Few now dared to approach the moody tyrant. Shut up in 
his castle of Plessis,* he grew each day more pitiless and more 
fanatical. He besieged every saint in heaven with prayers, 
not for the forgiveness of his sins, but for the prolongation 
of his life. He was anointed from the holy vial of Rheims. 
He weighed himself down with mouldering relics. He even 
drank the blood of infants, to revive the failing current of 
his own. At last the end came (1483), and every one rejoiced. 



CHARLES VIII. (THE AFFABLE), 

1483 to 1498 = 15 Years. 

Charles VIII., the heir to the throne, was only thirteen 
years of age, deformed in person, and lamentably ignorant. f 
He was left in the care of his sister Anne, known in history 
as the "Lady of Beaujeu" (bo-zhu), a woman inheriting much 
of the energy and diplomacy of her father. The prince near- 
est the throne was the Duke of Orleans, who was married to 
the king's youngest sister. A contest for the chief authority 
arose, which was referred to the States-General. This body, 
having committed the executive power to a Council of State, 

* Ten thousand mantraps were placed in the grounds, and passers-hy could not 
approach within a league. Suspicious persons were hung instantly without form of 
trial. There was scarcely a tree in the forest hut bore on its branches the body of 
some hapless trespasser, while corpses lay on the ground like bones around the lair 
of a wild beast. Within the walls the precautions were no less. The king lived in 
a suite of thirty rooms, which communicated with one another, and were secured by 
six complicated locks. No one knew in which of these he slept, and he never inhab- 
ited the same for two successive nights. 

t His father— remembering, perhaps, his own tmfilial youth— was fearful lest his 
ambition should become dangerous. All the Latin he allowed him to learn was a 
single sentence, which contains a faithful summary of his own policy : Qui nescit 
dissimulare nescit regnare. 



100 FEUDAL FRAiXCE. [1483. 

with Orleans at the head, considered various necessary 
reforms.* Little attention, however, was paid to its sug- 




SCENE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

gestions. Anne soon drove the duke out of his place as 
head of the council. Supported by Francis, duke of Brit- 

* The complaint which the tiers-etat made to the States was most pitiable. 
41 During the last four years," said they, " the king's troops have been continually 
passing and repassing through France, and all living on the poor people. Though 
employed to prevent oppression, they are themselves the worst of all oppressors. 
The poor peasant must pay for the man who beats him, who turns him out of his 
house, who carries off his substance, and who compels him to lie on the bare earth. 
When the poor man has, with extreme difficulty, and by the sale of the coat on his 
back, managed to pay his tax, and is comforting himself with the hope that he may 
live out the year on the little he has left, then comes a new troop of soldiers, eating 
and destroying that little ; and, not satisfied with what they find in the poor man's 
cottage, compelling him, with many blows, to seek in the town for wine, white 
bread, fish, groceries, and other luxuries ; so that, if God did not comfort the poor 
man, he would fall into utter despair. In Normandy a great and countless multitude 
have died of hunger; others, in despair, have killed their wives, their children, and 
themselves. From the want of beasts of labor, men, women, and children are com- 
pelled to yoke themselves to cattle ; and others, fearing that, if seen in the day-time, 
they will be seized for not having paid their faille, are compelled to labor during the 
niijht. All which things being considered, it seemeth to the States-General that the 
kin? ou<jht to have pity on his poor people, and ought to relieve them from the said 
failles and charges." This wail of distress was disregarded. In striking contrast 
with the distress of the common people were the pomp and splendor of the knights 
and the riches and security of the middle classes in the cities. 



1491.] CHARLES VIII. 101 

tany, and other distinguished nobles, he took tip arms. The 
royal forces were victorious, and he was captured and con- 
fined in an iron cage at Bourges. 

The Duchy of Brittany, by the death of Francis, soon 
after fell to his oldest daughter, Anne, scarcely twelve years 
of age. This young heiress was sought by as many suitors 
as Mary of Burgundy had been. Maximilian was again the 
favored one, and Anne was to become Mary's successor. 
This arrangement was highly unsatisfactory to Charles and 
his sister, who had been striving in every way to annex Brit- 
tany to the crown. A French army at once poured into the 
duchy. Maximilian, who had only been married by proxy, 
had never seen his bride, and, being then at war in Hungary, 
could render her no help. Charles captured the city of 
Bennes, and with it the fair duchess. His engagement with 
Maximilian's daughter — who had come to the French court 
at two years of age to be educated as the future queen — was 
broken off, and a marriage with Anne of Brittany imme- 
diately consummated. Thus Brittany, the last of the great 
independent provinces which had, during this epoch, threat- 
ened royalty, was annexed to the crown. France, united at 
home, was now prepared to assert her power among other 
European nations. 

Summary. — The Hundred Years War, the feature of the fifteenth 
century, covers the reigns of Philip VI., John I., Charles V., VI., and 
VII. — Edward III. and the Black Prince of England win the great 
battles of Crecy and Poitiers, and devastate the country. Charles V. 
and Guesclin gain back a large share of the lost territory. The Bur- 
gundians and Armagnacs reduce France to anarchy, while a maniac 
sits on the throne. Henry V. gains the battle of Azincourt, and an 
English king (Henry VI.) is proclaimed in Paris King of France. The 
Maid of Orleans comes to the rescue of her distracted country. The 
English, terror-stricken, flee at her approach, and Charles VII is 
crowned at Rheims. She is taken at last and burned at the stake. 
But French patriotism is aroused, and France has once more her own 



102 



FEUDAL FRANCE 



king. Talbot, the last of the English captains, falls on the field. The 
English retain only Calais. Louis XI., cold and calculating, subdues 
the feudal lords to his power. The Duke of Burgundy long holds out, 
but at Granson, Morat, and Nancy, is beaten by the Swiss. The Lady 
of Beaujeu proves a true daughter of a wily king. Brittany, last of 
the great fiefs, is annexed to the crown. France is welded into one 
compact kingdom, and the feudal system is fast expiring. 




Manners and Customs, — It is early morning, and Paris is just astir. 
The death-crier, in his sombre robes, adorned with skull and cross- 
bones, is already out with bell and 
lantern, and we hear his dismal 
voice begging the prayers of all 
good Christians for the newly-de- 
parted soul. — As the mists creep 
away, other sounds grow louder 
and more distinct. "Hot baths" 
are announced, and the people are 
exhorted to ' ' make haste before the 
water cools." Cries of fresh fish, 
fruits, and vegetables mingle in 
discordant clamor. Of the last, gar- 
lic is in greatest demand, as the 
basis of a sauce which takes the 
place of butter on bread. The day 
is now fairly opened, and out of 
their close quarters come the va- 
rious small artificers who ply their 
trades in the open air. Not the least curious of these is the mender of 
old clothes, who scans the garments of the passers-by with a greedy 
look, ready with his needles and thread to repair any rent at a mo- 
ment's warning. — In yonder doorway stands a sad-faced man, wringing 
his hands, and proclaiming the recent disaster which has befallen his 
house or fortunes. The mendicant monks waylay the wanderer at 
every turn, and are seconded by the begging scholars, whose pale and 
haggard faces, neglected hair, and ragged clothes, are a comment on 
the refining influence of schools where cruelty and neglect are the dis- 
cipline of the poor, and fawning favor the award of the rich. — It is 
1389, and Queen Isabel is making her "joyous entry" into Paris. The 
city is ablaze with splendor. One entire street is canopied with rich 
scarlet and silk cloths. The houses are hung with tapestry, and only 
women arrayed in brilliant stuffs and golden necklaces are seen at the 
windows. — Fountains, flowing with milk and spiced wines, are attended 
by beautiful girls, who sing as they offer drink from golden goblets. 



FRENCH DEATH-CRIER. 



FEUDAL FRANCE. 103 

There are elaborate tableaux ; mimic castles ; gay scaffolds whereon 
crusading heroes fight ; Saladin and the Saracens all in full costume ; 
a representation of Paradise, with singing angels; the holy Virgin, and 
the Christ child amusing himself with a toy windmill ; 1,200 mounted 
citizens of Paris, in green silk uniform, on one side the road, and on 
the other an equal number of the king's cavaliers, in bright scarlet, 
forming a hedge to protect the grand procession. The queen herself is 
borne on a gorgeous litter. Some of her ladies are in open litters, and 
some on magnificently-caparisoned palfreys, led by knights in full armor. 
There are various ingenuities of mechanism. Now an angel is made 
to descend " as if from the skies," and place a jewelled crown upon the 
head of the young queen. Now a large white stag, "having its horns, 
mouth, and all its limbs put in motion by a man within its body," 
accompanied by a lion and an eagle, plays a part in a little drama sym- 
bolical of loyalty to the king. Charles himself is there in disguise. 
Mounted behind one of his courtiers, they press through the crowd. 
In their struggles to get near they are well beaten by the faithful 
sergeants, who keep order with heavy staves. In the evening, after 
supper, the king talks it over amid the dancing festivities, and " laughs 
with the ladies at the blows he has received. " — In spite of prohibitory 
laws, the bourgeoisie so closely imitate the luxury and the extrava- 
gance of the aristocracy, that Charles VII. declares ' ' there is no possi- 
bility of discovering by their dress the state of persons, be they princes, 
nobles, bourgeois, or working men, because all are allowed to dress as 
they think proper, whether in gold or silver, silk or wool, without any 
regard to their calling." We read of the invalid wife of "a simple 
retail dealer, who was not above selling articles for four sous," who 
reclines between sheets of "fine linen of Rheims, costing over three 
hundred pounds ; " and under a quilt, which " is a new invention of 
silk and silver tissue." " She wears an elegant dress of crimson silk, 
and rests her head and arms on pillows ornamented with buttons of 
oriental pearls. The carpet is like gold, and the walls are hung with 
precious tapestry of Cypress, embroidered with her motto and initials." 
— A great change in the fashion of male attire takes place in the four- 
teenth century. The loose flowing robe is discarded, and the fashion- 
able young courtier wears his clothes so tight that "it requires the 
help of two persons to dress him ; and, when he disrobes, appears as 
if being skinned." The heavy misfortunes which visit France in her 
wars with England are publicly ascribed to the shameful extravagance 
and absurdities in dress. Head-dresses and sleeves reach almost to the 
ground, and a favorite shoe is " shaped like a bird, the front projecting 
into a sharp point like a beak, and the heel lengthened out like a 
claw." The youngest son of King John purchases 10,000 marten 
skins, " to trim only five mantles and as many overcoats; " and the 



104 



FEUDAL FRANCE 



Duke of Orleans has 2,790 ermine skins, put into one mantle, at a 
price of about twenty dollars a skin. The female costume is charac- 
terized by the close-fitting waist, and by long trains which, in walking, 

are tucked up under the* 
arms, or borne by maids or 
pages. The hair is worn over 
lolls and puffs, piled some- 
times to an enormous height, 
and mounted by a high con- 
ical bonnet. Long veils pend 
from the tip of these gro- 
tesque hats, and fall almost 
to the feet. — Toward the end 
of the fifteenth century, short 
mantles, broad-brimmed hats, 
covered with feathers, and 
wide knee-breeches, are worn 
by gentlemen. There are 
some glimpses of rural enjoy- 
ment even among the wretch- 
ed peasantry. The church 
festivals give them frequent 
holidays, " in which they 
drink, talk, sing, dance, and, 
above all, laugh with a noisy 
glee." At the wakes, or evening-parties, marvellous stories are told by 
the old women, which are devoutly believed by the wondering and 
superstitious company. — Not to clear the distaff on Saturday night, 
they affirm, insures bad linen from the next week's thread ; and to 
enter a cow-house without saying "God and St. Bridget bless you," 
is to run the risk of kicking cows, broken pails, and spilt milk. A 
collection of like ridiculous oracles is one of the first efforts at printing 
at the close of the fifteenth century. 




costume (fifteenth century). 



References for 'Reading. 

Histories of France already named— Mill's History of the Crusades.— Midland's 
Crusades.— Mackay's Popular Delusions, art. The Crusades— Addison's Hist, of the 
Knight Templars— Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered {poetry). — Chronicles of the Crusades 
{Bonn's Library}.— Longfellow's Belfry of Bruges {poetry).— Shakspere's King John 
{Arthur).— Yonge's Three Cent. Mod. Hist.— Bell's Studies of Feudalism.— Lacroix's 
Manners and Customs of the Middle Ages.—Thierry' c s Hist. Norman Conquest.— 
Byron's Childe Harold {Moral).— James's Philip Augustus, Mary of Burgundy, and 
Jacquerie {fiction). —Southey's Joan of Arc {poetry).— Harriet Parr's Joan of Arc— 
Scott's Quenlin Durward {fiction).— Jamison's Berlrand du Ouesclin.—Kirke's Life 



FEUDAL FRANCE. 105 

of Charles the Bold.— The Chronicles of Froissart and Monstrelet, those unrivalled 
■pictures of the times.— Nicolas' 's History of the Battle of Azincourt— Philip de Comines, 
Memoirs of France and Burgundy.— Ireland's Memoirs of Joan of Arc. 



JZyents of the Third Mpoch in Chronological Order. 

PAGE 

987-998. Hugh Capet. Capetian line founded ... 86 

996-1031. Robert the Pious 38 

1031-1060. Henry I. Truce of God 41 

1080-1108. Philip I. Conquest of England. First Crusade . 42-3 

1108-1137. Louis VI. (the Fat) 45 

1137-1180. Louis VII. (the Young). Second Crusade. Divorce of 

Eleanor . 46 

1 180-1223. Philip II. (Augustus). Normandy taken. Albigensian 

Crusade. Battle of Bou vines 47-9 

1223-6. Louis VIII 51 

1228-1270. Louis IX. (St. Louis.) Blanche. Languedoc annexed 

to France. Fifth and Sixth Crusades . . . 57-60 
1270-1285. Philip III. (the Bold). Sicilian Vespers . . 60 

1285-1314. Philip IV. (the Fair). Battle of Couitrai. Contest with 

Pope Boniface. Abolition of the Templars . . 61-5 
1314-1316. Louis X. (the Turbulent). Salic Law ... 65 

1316-1322. Philip V. (the Long) 66 

1322-1328. Charles IV. (the Handsome) 63 

1323-1350. Philip VI. House of Valois. Hundred Years War 

begun. Battles of Sluys and Crecy. Loss of Calais 72-6 
1350-1334. John I. (the Good-Natured). Battle of Poitiers. The 

Jacquerie. Marcel. Treaty of Bretigny . . 76-80 
1364-1380. Charles V. (the Wise). Charles the Bad. Du Guesclin 80-2 
1330-1422. Charles VI. (the Maniac). Battle of Rosbecque. Bur- 
gundians and Armagnacs. Assassination of the 
Duke of Orleans. Battle of Azincourt. Assassina- 
tion of the Duke of Burgundy. Treaty of Troyes 82-8 
1422-1481. Charles VII. (the Victorious). Battle of Verneuil. 
" Day of the Herrings." " Joan of Arc." Siege of 
Orleans raised. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. 
End of Hundred Years War. Standing army and 

fixed taxes 88-94 

1461-1483. Louis XL Charles the Bold. Burgundy, Anjou, Maine, 

and Provence annexed to France . . . 94-9 

1483-1498. Charles VIII. Lady of Beaujeu. Mary of Burgundy. 
Anne of Brittany. Last of the great independent 
provinces ........ 99 



WSJ* !¥• 

PERIOD OF Tt^E lTJ^Lip WpS, 



1494 to 1559 = 65 Years. 




SsNVASION of Italy (1494).— 
II Charles, romantic and visionary, 
and longing to rival the deeds of 
Charlemagne, was determined to 
assert his claim to the throne of 
Naples,* and even dreamed of chas- 
ing the Turks from Constantinople 
and restoring the Christian king- 
dom of Jerusalem ! He accord- 
ingly crossed the Alps with 50,000 
men.f The discords of the little Italian republics favored 

Geographical Questions.— Locate Milan, Naples, Rome, Sicily, Genoa, Venice, 
Ravenna, Pavia, Lombardy, Agnadello, Novarra, Mantua, Turin, Gaeta, Fornovo, 
Marignano, Sesia, Garigliano. Locate Amboise, Nice, Savoy, Metz, Toul, Strasburg, 
Verdun, St. Quentin (san kon tan). 

* Charles claimed Naples as the representative of the Anjevin— house of Anjou. 
The " good king Rene " left Provence and his right to Naples to his nephew, Charles 
of Maine, who, dying without children, bequeathed them to Louis XI. Louis was 
too sagacious to mingle in the maze of Italian politics. 

t His army tarried for the dilatory king at the foot of the Alps, amusing themselves 
with tournaments and gay festivities, until they had exhausted the money raised for 
the war. Charles was forced to borrow 50,000 crowns of a merchant of Milan, and 
finally pawned the jewels of the Duchess of Savoy and the Marchioness of Montfer- 
rat. — The great success of this expedition was largely due to the field-artillery. The 
French guns, mounted on carriages drawn by horses, and ready to go into battle at 
a moment's warning, presented a marked contrast to the Italian bombards, dragged 
with great difficulty by bullocks, and only firing stone-balls. 



1493.] CHARLES VIII. 107 

his advance. Florence, Rome, and Naples threw open their 
gates. 

The Reaction, — This wonderful triumph intoxicated the 
boyish king and his thoughtless advisers. They gave them- 
selves up to feasting and frivolity. The chief powers of 
Europe, alarmed at the progress of the French arms, formed 
a league to cut off his retreat. Charles turned back, laden 
with plunder, broke through the allied host at Fornova 
(1495), and escaped into France. His expedition, which at 
first was like a triumphal procession, at the last was little 
else than an ignominious flight. 

Effect. — This invasion marks an era in French history. 
The feudal system being broken up, the strength of the 
king, instead of being wasted in fighting the great vassals of 
the crown, was henceforth largely devoted to foreign enter- 
prises and to schemes of conquest. From this dazzling but 
useless exploit of Charles VIII. dates the interference of 
French kings in the affairs of Italy, as well as the general 
confederation of European states, to preserve the balance of 
power between them all. 

Last Days of Charles VIII.— On his return the king 
plunged into luxury and pleasure. Late in life he broke off 
his dissolute course, reformed abuses, and attended person- 
ally to the complaints of his people. But life was nearly 
gone ere he awoke to the responsibilities of a king, and he 
was an old man at twenty-eight. One day at Amboise, as 
he was leading the queen to a little gallery to watch some 
tennis-players in the court below, he accidentally struck his 
head against the low passage-way. Taking no notice of it, 
he remarked to a courtier : " I hope never to commit another 
wilful sin as long as I live." Scarcely had he spoken the 
words when he fell heavily in a fit of apoplexy, and died soon 
after on a pallet in the gallery. 



108 



THE ITALIAN WARS. 



[1498. 



The direct line of the Valois bouse being now extinct, 
the crown passed to the Duke of Orleans, of the Valois-Orleans 
branch of the same family. (See Table in Appendix.) 



V.— THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 

1498 to 1589 = 91 Years. 
LOUIS XII. (THE FATHER OF HIS PEOPLE). 

OUI8 XII. (1498 to 1515 = 17 
years), as king, appears very 
differently from the restless, in- 
triguing antagonist of the Lady 
of Beaujeu. He nobly an- 
nounced, on his ascension, that 
"the king of France would 
take no revenge on the enemies 
of the Duke of Orleans." For 
his second wife he married the 
LOUIS xn - widow of Charles VIII. (Anne 

of Brittany), and thus continued the union of Brittany and 
France. He purified the morals of the court. He forbade 
plunder by the soldiers, so that villagers no longer fled to 
the churches for safety when troops were quartered near 
them for the night. His economy was so marked that he 
was even accused of parsimony.* Men talked with amaze- 
ment of a king who paid as punctually as a merchant on 
'Change. Notwithstanding the numerous wars in which he 
was engaged, the taxes were reduced nearly one-third. The 
states gratefully conferred upon him (1506) the title of the 
" Father of his Country." 

* On hearing this, he answered : "I would rather have my courtiers laugh at my 
avarice than to have my people weep at my expense." 




1499.] 



LOUIS XII. 



109 



Invasion of Italy (1499). — Unfortunately, Louis cher- 
ished the same schemes of Italian conquest as Charles VIII. 
To the claim upon the throne of Naples he added that of 
the dukedom of Milan * He crossed the Alps, and made an 



Sforza, its reigning 
The French rule, 



easy capture of Lombardy. Milan fell, 
duke, fled to his son-in-law Maximilian, 
however, becoming 
oppressive, the people 
revolted, and Sforza 
recovered his capital ; 
but La Tremouille, 
the French general, 
arriving with rein- 
forcements, block- 
aded him in No vara. 
The majority of the 
troops in the oppos- 
ing armies were Swiss 
mercenaries. Natu- 
rally unwilling to 
fight against each 
other, those in the 
service of " the Moor," as Sforza was called, were bribed to 
surrender. J Milan was recaptured. 




ANNE OF BRITTANY. f 



* This claim was in right of his grandmother, Valentina Visconti, sister of Filippo 
Mario, the last of the great Visconti family. 

t Anne of Brittany is one of the most charming female characters of French his- 
tory. Her gentle piety and purity stand out in bold relief against the dark vices of 
her age. She transformed the most dissolute court of Europe into the most virtuous 
and orderly. She frowned upon intrigues of all kinds. She encouraged art and learn- 
ing at a time when they were but little appreciated. Her Book of Hours, still sacredly 
preserved in one of the great libraries of Paris, is probably the most sumptuous and 
elegant specimen extant of the illuminated works of the sixteenth century. 

% "Give us up the duke before you go, 1 ' said the French commander. "No, our 
honor forbids," was the reply ; " but you may find and take him if you can." So the 
Swiss troops passed in double file through the French army— each man being searched 
to see if the duke could be recognized. One, more knavish than the rest, pointed 



110 THE ITALIAN WARS. [1503. 

Capture of Naples. — Louis now agreed with Ferdinand 
to divide Naples between France and Spain.* Their armies 
were accordingly poured into that devoted kingdom; but, 
when it came to dividing the spoils, the victors quarreled. 
The great Spanish captain, Gonsalvo, took Naples. Louis, 
thereupon, raised three great armies, two of which he sent 
against Spain, and one, under the veteran La Tremouille, into 
Italy. At this crisis the death of Pope Alexander VI., and 
the illness of Caesar Borgia, his son, threw all into confusion. \ 
Deprived of these powerful friends, beset by Gonsalvo, and 
embarrassed by the illness of Tremouille, the French were 
irretrievably routed (Garigliano, 1503). Gaeta, their last 
stronghold, surrendered. Naples had been won and lost a 
second time. 

The Three Leagues. — Still eager to acquire a broader 
foothold in Italy, Louis now entered into a confederation, 
known as the League of Carnival, between his enemies, Fer- 
dinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II., against the Vene- 
tians, his only friends south of the Alps. Louis descended 
into Italy with a powerful army, and defeated the Venetians 
(Agnadello, 1509), who retired to their inaccessible lagoons. 
The Pope, thereupon, persuaded Ferdinand, the Swiss, and 
the Venetians to form the Holy League, as he called it, 

him out in his disguise. He was sent to the cas'.le of Loches, where he died ten 
years after. Such had been his crimes that no one pitied his fate. 

* This was a most iniquitious scheme. The Neapolitan and Spanish sovereigns 
were friends and relations. Therefore, when pressed by the French, Frederick of 
Naples would naturally seek help from his cousin, Ferdinand. Spanish troops would 
then be sent to man his fortresses, and would be ready to deliver them to the French 
when they appeared. The perfidy of this plot was enhanced by the fact that Fred- 
erick was an estimable and popular prince. 

t The story is that he and his son coveted the riches of a wealthy cardinal, and 
determined to poison him. Inviting themselves to sup with him at his country- 
house, they brought with them a present of some choice wine, in which, however, 
they had mixed poison. On their arrival, being thirsty, they asked for some refresh- 
ment. By mistake the cardinars servants gave them the very wine they had brought. 
Alexander drank heartily of it, and died in a few hours. Cuesar escaped with the loss 
of his health. 



1513.] LOUIS XII. Ill 

against Franco. The French, under the brilliant Gaston de 
Foix, then only twenty-two years of age, gained three victo- 
ries in as many months. In the last battle (Ravenna, 1512), 
this gallant prince, calling out, " He that loves me follows 
me," charged upon the enemy, and fell, pierced by twenty 
wounds from sword and lance. The League of Malines, com- 
posed of Henry VIII. of England, Maximilian, Ferdinand, 
and Leo X., the new pope, was next formed. La Tremouille, 
the brave old general, now over eighty years of age, once 
more took the field. Again Louis longingly turned his eyes 
toward Milan. The city, as twice before, submitted, and 
La Tremouille wrote boastingly to Louis that he could send 
back the son of the Moor in chains as he had the father 
thirteen years before. But the Swiss garrison of Novara, 
sallying out by night, captured his intrenchments, and turned 
Jiis own guns upon his camp. All was over. La Tremouille, 
wounded, recrossed the Alps with his army. The guilty in- 
vader of Italy had lost all the prizes which had cost so much 
crime and misery. 

France Threatened. — Meanwhile, Louis was forced to 
look to the defence of France itself, now threatened on the 
east by the Swiss, on the south by the Spaniards, and on the 
north by the English. The last had already won the victory 
of Guinegate, near Calais (1513).* Weary of war and vexed 
by his defeats, Louis now gladly made peaco with all the 
hostile powers. 

Last Days of Louis. — Queen Anne was no more, and, 
to confirm the alliance with England, Louis married the 
Princess Mary, Henry's sister. But his health was already 
feeble, and he soon after died (January 1, 1515), a victim to 

* This is known as the second Battle of the Spurs, not, as at Courtrai, hecanse of 
the number taken from the dead, hut because of the good use made of them by the 
living— the French cavalry—who plied them lustily in ignominious flight. 



112 



THE ITALIAN WARS. 



[1515. 



the amusements and dissipation into which he entered to 
please his young bride. Leaving no direct male heirs, he was 
succeeded by Francis, of the Valois-Angouleme * branch of 
the same family. 



FRANCIS I. (KING OF THE GENTLEMEN). 

1515 to 1517 = 32 Years. 

Francis I., of noble stature, handsome, joyous, brilliant, 
warm-hearted, and luxurious in his tastes, was just the man 

to dazzle all classes of 
society. The decay of 
feudal privileges during 
the gradual growth of 
" the royal power," had 
lessened the importance 
of the nobility, who now 
left their castles to clus- 
ter about the throne. 
The Parisian court be- 
came the centre of all 
that was gay and at- 
tractive.! 

Battle of Marig- 
nano. — Inspired by the 
ambition and untaught 




FRANCIS I.— (AFTER TITIAN.) 



* When Louis XII. was dying, his thoughts turned toward the future of France. 
44 1 have done all for the best," he said, " butihatbig boy dAngouleme will spoil all." 

t The elegance, refinement, and luxury of his court presented a striking contrast 
to the ascetic frugality of Louis XL and the homely practicality of Louis XII. His 
chivalric nature can be traced in his dealings with Mary, the late king's widow. She 
had come to France, a reluctant sacrifice to state policy, for her heart was already 
given to the Duke of Suffolk. Her brother, Henry VIII., knowing this, had assured 
her that if she would consent to this French marriage— which was not likely to be 
of long duration — she should have her own choice the second time. Her freedom had 
come sooner than was expected, and her lover was already in France by her side. But 



1515.] F KAN" CIS I. 113 

by the failures of his predecessors, Francis inaugurated his 
reign by crossing the Alps with a great army. At Marig- 
nano lie encountered the Swiss allies of Milan. The des- 
perate struggle lasted till midnight, when both French and 
Swiss, overpowered by exhaustion, lay down where each hap- 
pened to stand. Francis himself found no better resting- 
place than a gun-carriage. No food could be obtained, and 
the water which one of his troopers brought him was discol- 
ored with blood. At early dawn they arose and resumed 
the fight. Suddenly the battle-cry of the coming Venetians 
sounded on the Swiss rear. This decided the day, and the 
brave mountaineers left the field to their victors. Francis, 
who had fought throughout like a hero, received the order 
of knighthood at the hands of the Chevalier Bayard.* By 
this victory Milan was again won. 

The "Perpetual Peace" and. the "Concordat"— 
Francis now made two treaties : one with the Swiss, and one 

Francis, ignorant of the state of affairs, had his own projects. Could he arrange 
some feasible alliance for her in France,. her valuable dower would be retained, and 
he hiight possibly evade the payment of the large revenue to which, as queen- 
dowager, she was entitled. Worn out by her anxiety and fears, Mary at last resolved 
to confess the truth to the young king, and appeal to his manly sympathy and gene- 
rosity. Francis was touched by her confidence, and at cnce responded. Thrusting 
aside his ambition, he became her most earnest adviser. He entreated, as a per- 
sonal favor, the consent of Henry to the alliance; and, when the opposition of the 
English aristocracy threatened to again disappoint her hopes, he secretly abetted a 
private marriage between the two in the little oratory chapel of Hotel deCluny, Paris. 
* The Chevalier Pierre de Bayart (as his name is spelled in his signature preserved 
at Paris) was of a warlike family. His father fought and suffered many wounds 
under Louis XL ; his grandfather was killed at Montlheri ; his great-grandfather at 
Crecy ; his great-great-grandfather at Poitiers. When only eighteen Pierre fought 
under Charles VHL, and took a stand of colors at Fornova. At the siege of Milan, 
under Louis XII., he was swept within the gates of the city by the crowd of fugitives, 
but was set free without ransom by the enemy in admiration of his valor. At Garig- 
liano he held a bridge alone against two hundred Spanish soldiers, and secured the 
retreat of the French. At Guinegate, with a rear-guard of only fourteen men, he 
kept the English back until the French had time to rally from their panic. With a 
little body of 1,000 he defended Mezieres for six weeks against 35,000, under the 
Count of Nassau. For this gallant service he received the collar of St. Michael, and 
was appointed over one hundred men-at-arms— a position until then only held by a 
prince of the blood. Higher, however, than his valor was his courtesy, loyalty, benev- 
olence, and integrity. The universal admiration of the age conferred upon him the 
title of the " chevalier without fear and without reproach." 



114 



THE ITALIAN WARS, 



[1516. 



with the Pope Leo X. The former (1516) converted the 
Swiss Eepublic into an ally of France, and lasted till the 
Kevolution. The latter annulled the famous Pragmatic 




BAYARD KNIGHTING FRANCI5. 

Sanction of Charles, and restored to the Pope the immense 
revenues of the annates* 

Francis I. and Charles V.— On the death of Maxi- 
milian, both Francis and Charles, the youthful king of 

* The first year's revenues of vacant benefices were termed annates, or first-fruits. 



1520.] FRANCIS I. 115 

Spain,* sought to be elected in his stead. The latter was 
successful. A bitter rivalry ensued, which led to four dis- 
astrous wars.f 

Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520).— Both monarchs 
appealed to Henry VIII. of England for help. Henry and 
Francis met near Calais. The magnificence displayed on this 
occasion gave to the place its name — the Field of the Cloth 
of Gold. For three weeks the two kings feasted, sported, and 
even wrestled together like school-boys. They measured their 
height, found they were of equal size, and exchanged apparel. 
Meantime, their followers vied in the gorgeousness of their 
equipments. Festivals and tournaments of almost fabulous 
splendor were held. Soon after Charles quietly sailed across 
the channel, and, while he flattered the bluff and good- 
natured Henry, won his minister and favorite, Cardinal Wol- 
sey, by profuse presents and hopes of the papacy. Within 
two years the vows of friendship, so luxuriously taken on the 
Field of the Cloth of Gold, were forgotten, and Henry was 
fighting with the emperor against his " dear brother." 

The First War broke out in 1521. Francis suffered 
humiliating reverses. The Constable de Bourbon, the fore- 
most general in France, went over to Charles,! and was put 
at the head of his armies. The noble Bayard was killed 
while gallantly guarding the passage of a bridge across the 
Sesia § (1524). 

* The three mightiest sovereigns of Europe in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
tury—Henry VIII. of England, Charles V. of Spain, and Francis I. of France— all 
assumed their crowns before reaching their majority. 

t Francis, at the beginning, declared, with the greatest courtesy : " We are two 
gallants courting the same mistress ; he who fails will have no excuse for ill-temper.'" 
Fine words, but soon forgotten. 

$ Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis, had fallen in love with Bourbon, and sought 
to marry him. The constable shunned her on. account of her infamous character. 
Bent on revenge, she deprived him of his proper post in the army, held back his 
pensions, and finally stripped him of his estates. Bourbon, in desperation, turned 
to the enemies of France. 

§ The " good knight, 11 as he was lovingly called, was wounded by a stone ball from 



116 THE ITALIAN WARS. [1525. 

Battle of Pavia (1525). — Francis again led a magnificent 
army over the Alps, recaptured Milan, which had been lost 
the third time within twenty years, and invested Pavia. 
Bourbon attempted to raise the siege. His troops advanced 
steadily, though suffering terribly from the French artillery. 
Francis, seeing them scatter to escape this fire, mistook the 
movement for a retreat, and rashly hurled himself upon them 
at the head of his cavalry. As he came in front, the imperial 
troops closed their ranks with admirable discipline. At this 

FAC-SIMILE OF THE WRITING OF FRANCIS I. 

critical moment the cannon which had served him so well 
ceased firing lest they should endanger him. He was quickly 
hemmed in on all sides. With his knights he performed 
prodigies of valor. Thrown from his horse, twice wounded, 
and covered with blood, he was at last forced to yield his 
sword.* Many renowned generals fell fighting about him. 
The royal captive, on his arrival in Madrid, was imprisoned 
in a gloomy tower of the Alcazar. Overwhelmed by his 
misfortunes and broken down by sickness, after a year's im- 
prisonment, he agreed to sign the Treaty of Madrid, prom- 

an arquebus. He was placed at the foot of a tree, with his face to the enemy. The 
Constable of Bourbon coming up in the pursuit, stopped to console him. "Pity not 
me, 11 said the dying hero, "I die as an honest man. I rather pity you, in arms 
against your king, your country, and your oath." 

* The reputed letter wherein Francis conveyed the news to his mother in a single 
terse sentence: "Madame, all is lost save honor," is purely imaginary. The real 
one was quite long, and has no claim to any historic renown. 




1526] FRANCIS I. 117 

ising to relinquish Burgundy and his Italian claims, and to 
surrender his two sons as hostages. On these hard terms he 
was set free. Once past the Bidassoa, he sprang on horse- 
back, exclaiming, " I am again a king," and galloped, scarcely 
drawing rein, to Bayonne. His freedom gained, he refused 
to fulfil the treaty. Charles, enraged at being thus duped, 
turned his wrath upon the helpless boys. 

The Second War. — Charles was too great, too fortu- 
nate, and too reaching. So Francis easily formed an alliance 
against him, with Henry, the Pope, and the Venetians, called 
the Holy League (152G). Paralyzed, however, by the misfor- 
tunes of Pavia, Francis showed little spirit, and gave him- 
self up to the fascinations of a new mistress, the Duchess 
D'Etampes. Bourbon, at the head of an army wild for 
plunder, assaulted Eome, but was shot as he mounted a 
ladder. His troops scaled the walls, and plunged into the 
city like madmen. They spared neither age, sex, nor rank. 
The Pope escaped into the castle of St. Angelo, but was 
forced to surrender.* Pictures of priceless value were de- 
stroyed. The splendor which had survived so many heathen 
invasions perished before the brutality of a Christian army. 
The French, under Lautrec, now made another triumphant 
invasion of Italy. It ended, as usual, in disaster. Finally, 
the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), knowm as the "Ladies' 
Peace," \ brought a lull in the conflict. Francis recovered 
his sons, and paid 2,000,000 crowns for Burgundy. Italy 
was abandoned to the emperor. 

Third War (1536). — Difficulties soon arose, chiefly about 
Lombardy. Charles, vowing that he would make "the king 

* Charles, hearing of Pope Clement's capture, put himself and court into mourn- 
ing, and ordered prayers to he offered for the Pope's release. It was, in effect, 
praying to himself, and he did not yield until his prisoner had paid roundly. 

t So called hecause it was negotiated hy Louise of France, mother of the king, and 
Margaret of Austria, the emperor's " well-heloved aunt." 



118 THE ITALIAN WARS. [1541. 

of France as poor as any gentleman in his dominion," invaded 
Provence, but was glad to get back again with half his army. 

The Two Kings become Friends. — The Pope at last 
brought about a reconciliation between the rival monarchs. 
Soon after, Ghent, revolting against the Spanish authority, 
offered itself to Francis. He not only refused the tempting 
bait, but promised to Charles V. a safe passage from Spain 
across France, to punish the rebellious burghers. The em- 
peror accepted, and was received everywhere with rejoicings.* 
Once safe across, however, Charles refused to fulfil the promise 
he had made of giving Milan to the son of the French king. 

Fourth War. — Francis, thereupon, formed an alliance 
with the Turkish sultan, Solyman, who ravaged Hungary. 
The celebrated Algerine corsair, Barbarossa, with one hun- 
dred and ten ships, joined the French fleet, and Christian 
people saw with amazement the union of the lilies of France 
with the ensign of the Infidel. The coasts of Italy were 
devastated, and 14,000 Christian prisoners taken back to Con- 
stantinople as slaves. By the brilliant victory of Cerisolles 
(1544), Francis gained all Piedmont. Meanwhile, Henry, 
fickle as ever, declared for the emperor. Both w T ere to march 
upon Paris, and then divide France between them. This 
double invasion came to nought. The treaty of Crespjj 
(1544) finally put an end to the rivalries of the two mon- 
archs, who for twenty-five years had deluged Europe with 
blood. 

* There were not a few who counselled Francis to retain the emperor till he ful- 
filled his promise of granting Milan. " Do you see that fair lady ? " said Francis, one 
evening, pointing out to Charles the Duchess d'Etampes : " she advises me not to 
let you depart from Paris until you have revoked the treaty of Madrid. " The emperor 
was at first disconcerted, but rallied, and replied, coolly: "If the advice is good, it 
should he followed." He, nevertheless, contrived on the following clay to drop 
a diamond ring at her feet; she picked it up, and he begged her to retain it. 
Thus he won her favor.— The court-fool of Francisset down Charles "to head his 
list of fools," for daring to pass through France. " But if I let him go ? '.' said 
Francis. "Then," replied he, "I will rub cut his name and will write yours in its 
place." 



1541] TEAK CIS I. 119 

The Reformation. — Early in the sixteenth century Lu- 
ther began in Germany a religious reform. The Protestant 
princes had united against Charles V., who sustained the 
Catholic cause. Calvin had preached in France, and his 
famous work on the Institutes of the Christian Religion was 
afterward dedicated to Francis I. The Calvinistic doctrines 
took deep root among the French nobility. They were even 
cherished by the king's sister Marguerite, Queen of Navarre, 
and Calvin was received at her court when driven from 
Paris by Francis. There had been occasional efforts made 
to repress the reformers, but the necessity of allying himself 
with their leaders in Germany against Charles V. compelled 
Francis to relax his hostility toward the Protestants in his 
own dominions. By the treaty of Crespy, however, Francis 
and Charles bound themselves to re-establish the Catholic 
Church in all its integrity. 

The Waldenses, or Vaudois (vo-dwah), a Calvinistic 
community living in the valleys of Piedmont, were now treated 
with terrible severity. Three thousand persons are said to 
have been massacred ; their houses were burned ; the fields 
were laid waste, the woods cut down, and the district was 
converted into a desert. 

Government. — Francis aimed at a despotism. The States- 
General were no longer convoked. Parliament proclaimed 
the doctrine of implicit obedience. Patriotism became synon- 
ymous with loyalty to the king. Singularly enough, how- 
ever, while so intolerant of any curtailment of his dignity, 
Francis was yet largely ruled by female influence. In the 
early part of his reign his mother, Louise of Savoy, was really 
queen of France. Later, the famous Diana of Poitiers be- 
came his favorite, and she in turn was succeeded by the 
Duchess d'Etampes. Thus the public service was corrupted, 
and even state secrets were betrayed. In the glitter of a 



120 



THE ITALIAN WARS 



[1547. 



dissolute and fashionable court the sweet domestic charities 
were made to seem vulgar, while vice was veiled under the 
guise of sentiment and refinement. The long wars with 
Charles V. led to increase of taxes, which pressed heavily on 
the people. 

The Renaissance. — Francis, however, did much to nat- 
uralize in France that love of art, for the encouragement of 
-v __, ^_ which she has since been 

so renowned. Eight well 
did he merit his title of 
" Patron of Letters and 
the Arts." He brought 
back from Italy sculptors 
and painters. * He gath- 
ered treasures of art from 
all parts of Europe. He 
made munificent dona- 
tions to schools and col- 
leges. He was the friend and patron of scholars. A new 
style of architecture — the French Eenaissance — was intro- 
duced. The sumptuous palaces of Fontainbleau and St. 
Germain, and the chateaux of Chenonceaux and Chambord, 
are among its magnificent monuments. 

Death of the King (1547).— Francis died, a victim of 
his own excesses, only two months after his alternate friend 
and enemy, Henry VIII. His last words to his son, Henry, 
were to lighten the taxes, and to beware of the ambitious 
house of Guise. 




CHENONCEAUX. 



* Leonardo da Vinci, the immortal painter of the Last Supper— which still remains 
faded and mutilated on the walls of Santa Maria della Grazie, in Milan— was his 
especial favorite. They met, for the first time, in full sight of the Last Supper. 
'* Inasmuch as I am unable to carry this chef d'oeuvpe home with me, I should like to 
take the artist whose work it is," said the king. Leonardo bowed his assent, and, 
after three years of quiet happiness— for he was already an old man and had seen 
much sorrow— he expired (so says tradition) in the arms of his royal Mend. 



1547.] 



THE I T A LIAK W A R S 



121 



HENRY II. 

1547 to 1559 = 12 Years. 

Henry II. was handsome, affable, and skilled in the use 
of arms, but his feeble mind gave no signs of greatness or 
virtue. Neglecting his wife, Catherine d' Medici, he de- 
voted himself to the infamous Diana de Poitiers, twenty 
years his senior. Forgetful of his father's dying advice, he 
gave his confidence to the constable Montmorenci, whom he 




TESTON d' ARGENT TROISSANT HENRY II.* 

familiarly called his "gossip," and to Francis d'Aumale, 
afterward Duke of Guise. The court was rent by rival 
favorites, for whom the people were plundered without 
mercy, f 

War with Charles V. — Every Frenchman feels that 
the natural boundary of France on the east is the Rhine. 
To realize this idea, Henry made a treaty with the Protestant 
princes of Germany against Charles V. ; and, assuming the 
high-sounding title of "Protector of the liberties of Ger- 
many," took forcible possession of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. 

* During this reign a decree was issued to the effect that thereafter the effigy of the 
king should be stamped on all moneys. 

t The men and women who surrounded Henry were a set of harpies, whose appe- 
tite for plunder could not be satisfied. Spies were abroad to report the sick and 
dying, that not a moment might be lost in begging for reversions ; and doctors were 
kept in pay who had the reputation of anticipating Nature by an extra dose. — Gurnet. 

6 



122 THE ITALIAN WARS. [1552-9. 

Siege of Metz (1552). — Furious at his loss, Charles, with 
100,000 men, laid siege to Metz. It was defended by Francis, 
Duke of Guise, and the knights of France nocked thither as 
to a tournament. The emperor was finally forced to retire, 
bitterly declaring that "Fortune, like the rest of her sex, 
favors the young and neglects the old." * 

Battle of St Quentin (1567).— While the Duke of 
Guise was fighting in Italy with the best troops of France, 
a Spanish-English army invaded Pieardy, and besieged St. 
Quentin, where Admiral Coligny was stationed with only 
seven hundred men. The constable Montmorenci, marching 
to his relief, rashly attacked the enemy, who outnumbered 
him two to one, and was terribly beaten. The town was 
stormed, and the veteran Coligny captured while defending 
the breach, sword in hand. The road to Paris lay open to 
the victors, but they failed to follow up their success.f 

Capture of Calais (1558). — The Duke of Guise, return- 
ing from an inglorious campaign in Italy, and eager to 
avenge the defeat of St. Quentin, captured Calais, by an 
unexpected attack, in the dead of winter. Thus England 
lost the last remnant of her continental domains, after having 
retained it over two centuries. This exploit raised to the 
highest pitch the glory of the Duke of Guise. 

The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), called the 
Unfortunate Peace, closed the contest between Henry and 
Philip. France relinquished no less than one hundred and 
eighty-nine towns and fortresses in the Low Countries and in 
Italy; but retained Calais, Toul, Metz, and Verdun. 

* Two years afterward he retired to a monastery, and his immense kingdom was 
divided between his son, Philip II., and his brother Ferdinand. 

t When Charles, in bis retirement, heard of this victory, he exclaimed : "Is not 
my son now in Paris ?" Philip, however, derived ho advantage from it, except the 
glory of the day and the plan of the huge palace of the Escurial, which is built in 
parallel rows like the bars of a gridiron, in memory of St. Lawrence, on whose day 
the battle was fought, and whose martyrdom consisted in beingbroiled over a slow fire. 



1559.] 



HENRY II. 



123 



Death of the King. — A double marriage was to cement 
the peace ; one between the Princess Elizabeth of France and 
Philip II., the other between Margaret, the king's sister, and 
the Duke of Savoy. In celebration of the first a grand tour- 
nament was held, in which the king and the Duke of Guise 




A TOURNAMENT.— (SIXTEENTH CENTURY.) 



held the lists against all comers. .At length the king desired 
Count Montgomery, a Scotch officer of the guard, to break 
a lance with him. The challenge was reluctantly accepted. 
Their lances shivered, a splinter entered Henry's eye, and 
he fell mortally wounded. 



Summary. — The close of the fifteenth and the first half of the six- 
teenth centuries are marked by the Italian wars. Charles VIII. and Louis 
XII. waste therein their strength and treasure. The Father of his People 
Is followed by the King of the Gentlemen. Francis I. wins Marig- 
nano, and is knighted by Bayard. For thirty years he struggles against 
Charles V. Taken at Pavia, imprisoned at Madrid, and driven out of 
Italy, he yet preserves French territory, and holds the Austrian-Spanish 



124 THE ITALIAN WARS. 

house in check. The renaissance brightens the realm of art, but 
bribery and selfishness corrupt the state, while the king becomes 
absolute in power. Henry II. annexes Metz, Verdun, and Tool. The 
French are defeated at St. Quentin, but the Duke of Guise gloriously 
defends Metz against the emperor, captures Calais from the English, 
and frees France from the lingering step of the invader. 



References for 'Heading. 

Mrs. Elliot's Court Life in France {romance) .— James" s Henry of Guise (fiction.— 
James's Memoirs of Great Commanders (Gonsalvo cle Cordova).— PrescoWs Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella, Vol. Ill— Robertson's Charles V.—Gurnefs Chapters in French 
History.— Violet le Due, Annals of a Fortress. 



Brents of the Fourth I?j)oc?i in Chronological Order. 

tags 
1494-1498. Charles VIII. First descent of French into Italy 106 

1498-1515. Louis XII. (Father of his People). Expedition to 

Italy. Exploits of Gaston de Foix. Battle of 

the Spurs 108-11 

1515-1547. Francis I. Battle of Marignano. Strife between 

Francis I. and Charles V. Exploits of Bayard. 

Battle of Pavia . . . . . . . 112-16 

1547-1559. Henry II. Metz and Verdun annexed to France. 

Defeat of St. Quentin. Capture of Calais. Peace 

of Cateau-Cambresis . . . . . 121 



Distinguished Names of the f&th and f6th Centuries. 

Jehan Froissari (1337-1410), "the Walter Scott of the Middle Ages." His 
chronicles present a most brilliant and life-like picture of the feudal life of the 14th 
century. 

Christina (1383-1420), daughter of Thomas of Pisa, astrologer of Charles V., wrote 
a life of that monarch. She was the most accomplished woman of her time. 

sitian Chartier* (1386-1458), wrote a history of Charles VII., was a poet and a 
moralist. 

jphilijy cle Comines (1445-1509), author of Memoirs of Louis XI. and Charles 
VIII., marked an epoch in historical literature. He aimed, not to amuse, but to 
instruct ; and by exact truthfulness and a critical examination of events, to paint the 
past and draw a lesson for the future. 



* His patroness, Margaret of Scotland, wife of the Dauphin, afterward Louis XL, 
one day finding him asleep, astonished her companions by kissing his lips, taking 
care, however, to explain that she paid the homage, not to the man, but to the 
" mouth whence had issued so many golden words." 



PERIOD OF TIjE CIVIURELIGIOUS WpS, 



1553 to 1533-39 Years. 



The three sons of Henry II. came to the throne in 
succession. Francis was only sixteen, Charles ten, and Henry 
twenty-three years of age, when called to rule. Young and 

inexperienced, they were 
entirely unfitted to deal 
with the turbulent fac- 
tions and profound ques- 
tions which then agitated 
the country. 

Francis II., a weak 
and sickly hoy, was de- 
voted to his beautiful 
young bride, the ill-fated 
Mary Queen of Scots. 
During his short reign 
of sixteen months, Mary's 
uncles, the Duke of Guise 
and Cardinal Lorraine, through her controlled the king, 
while the queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici, plotted and 
intrigued to secure power for herself. 

The Huguenots. — The Calvinists, or, as they began to 

Geographical Questions— Locate Vassyj Dreux, Amboise, Blois, Orleans, 
Eochelle (she!), Bayonne (ba-yon), St. Denis, Jarnac (znar-nac), Contras (trah), 
Arques (arks), Ivry, Vervins, Nantes (nants). 




CATHERINE DE 1 MEDICI. 



1-26 THE. CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1532. 

be called, the Huguenots,* had now over 2,000 houses of 
worship. Conscious of their power, they began to demand 
the same rights as their Lutheran brethren in Germany had 
secured, and to threaten a great religious revolution. At their 
head were the king of Navarre, the princes of Conde — both 
of the royal house of Bourbon, which claimed descent from 
St. Louis — and Admiral Coligny (len-ye), nephew of Constable 
Montmorenci. The Bourbons, ambitious for political power, 
hated their rivals, the Guises, who stood at the head of the 
Catholic party. The Guises, by their arrogance and tyranny, 
aroused deep hatred among all classes. The malcontents 
naturally allied themselves with the Huguenots. Thus, 
what began as a revolt against the authority of the pope, 
became one against that of the king. Political parties min- 
gled with religious, and the contest was little more than a 
struggle for the ascendancy of rival chiefs. 

Conspiracy of Amboise (1560). — A plot, in which the 
enemies to the government of all classes and views united, 
was formed to get possession of the king. The leader was 
the Prince of Conde (da), known among the conspirators only 
as the " Dumb Captain." The plan failed through treachery, 
and the court was removed to the castle of Amboise for 
safety. The vengeance of the Guises was fearful. f The 
Prince of Conde was arrested, condemned, and only saved by 
th 3 death of Francis II. 

Charles IX., a boy of ten, next ascended the throne. 
Catherine de' Medici now occupied a place like that once 
held by Blanche of Castile ; but there was a vast difference 

* Said to be so named from a corruption of the German word cidgenossen, asso- 
ciated by oath, the name assumed by the Calvinists of Geneva. 

t The carnage lasted for a month. The victims were tortured, and then hung, 
beheaded, or drowned in the Loire. The streets of Amboise ran with blood, while a 
crowd of swollen corpses, fastened together by long poles, floated in the river. The 
young king, Catherine de 1 Medici, and many ladies of the court, assembled daily to 
witness these barbarous executions. 



15G2.] CHAELES IX. 127 

in the character and record of the two mothers. Bred in the 
wily Italian court, Catherine was true to no party and faith- 
ful to no creed.* She sought to hold the balance of power 
between the two parties; called the States-General ; prohib- 
ited persecution in matters of religion ; and introduced various 
reforms. But the recklessness of party spirit and selfish am- 
bition could not be restrained. In vain the excellent Chancellor 
l'Hopital exhorted to peace. Events steadily moved on to war. 

"Massacre of Vassy." — One Sunday (1562) the Duke 
of Guise was riding through the little town of Vassy as the 
Huguenots were gathering for worship. His attendants, 
going to the church, commanded the congregation to dis- 
perse. A fierce brawl ensued. The duke hurried to the 
spot, and was met by a shower of stones. The soldiers opened 
fire, and sixty persons were slain. 

This was the signal for a war which, seven times suspended 
by precarious treaties, was as many times renewed, and for 
thirty-two years covered France with blood and ruin.f Each 
party appealed to its friends for help — the Guises to Philip of 

* She careel nothing about the religious questions of the day. She -was ambitious, 
and to this was ready to sacrifice any party or principle. She even corrupted her 
own sons to pave her way to power. " She trusted nothing except the predictions 
of astrologers and the course of the stars. The direful traditions of her race, the 
philters, the perfumes, the powders— swift and deadly poisons— were imported by 
her into France. She had poisons for flowers, for gloves and handkerchiefs, for the 
folds of royal robes, for the edge of gemmed drinking-cups, for rich and savory 
dishes. One by one all who stood in the way of her ambition were quietly ' removed ' 
by these secret agencies." 

+ "On both sides, 11 remarks Lingard, "inhuman atrocities were perpetrated by 
men who professed to serve under the banners of religion and for the honor of God. 1 ' 
" One may easily know, 11 says Montluc, in his memoirs, " which way I have passed ; 
for upon the trees by the roadside hang my ensigns. 11 He was always accompanied 
by two hangmen, whom he called his lackeys. Briquemont wore a string of priests' 
ears as a necklace. Things finally came to such a pass that all bonds of society were 
dissolved. The towns took arms, and the bnrghers kept watch and ward. The 
peasants, with axe and club, and in self-defence, massacred all soldiers of whatever 
party. A gentleman with loaded musket watched the visitor who might be coming 
up the walk to his house, and. according to his trust or suspicion, gave orders to 
open the door, or shot him down without further notice. Even if it were his most 
intimate acquaintance, he called out to him, from an aperture in the wall, to leave 
his arms outside before he could enter. 



128 



THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS 



[1562. 



Spain, and the Huguenots to Elizabeth of England. Like 
most civil and religious contests, it was conducted with brutal 
ferocity. It would be a useless task to note the details of 
such a complicated strife. 

Fate of the Leaders.— The king of Navarre, having 
been won over by the Guises, fell while leading an assault at 

Eouen. In the first bat- 
tle (Dreux, 1562), the 
constable Montmorenci 
was captured by the 
Huguenots, and Conde * 
by the royalists. Soon 
after, while besieging 
Orleans, the Duke of 
I 'IBH^ Guise was treacherously 

>Jlil§ ' - lUfct sno ^ kv a Huguenot. 

Montmorenci and Conde, 
being released, were kill- 
ed in battle, the former 
at St. Denis, and the lat- 
ter at Jarnac, where, after having given up his sword, he was 
shot by a Swiss captain, while lying helpless and bleeding. 

The Henrys, f — Jeanne of Navarre, widow of the king 
of Navarre, now came to the Huguenot camp with her son 
Henry, Prince of Beam — afterward Henry of Navarre — and 
his cousin Henry, Prince of Conde, son of the fallen general. 
Henry of Beam was chosen leader under the veteran Coligny. 




* Conde was taken to the tent of the Duke of Girise, who received him more like a 
comrade than a captive, and, as a mark of his confidence, shared his hed with him. 
Conde afterward declared that Guise slept as soundly as if his dearest friend, instead 
of his greatest enemy, were lying by his side ; hut as for himself, he " did not close 
his eyes during the entire night." 

t Four Henrys now figured at the head of the armies, none of whom was yet out 
of his teens: Henry of Lorraine, duke of Guise, son of the one killed at Orleans; 
Henry of France, duke of Anjou (afterward Henry III.) ; Henry of Bourbon, prince 
of Conde ; and Henry of Beam, prince of Navarre and Beam (afterward Henry IV.). 



1573] CHARLES IX. 129 

The peace of St. Germain, soon after, gave a temporary lull 
to hostilities. 

Marriage of Henry and Margaret. — Every effort was 
now made to conciliate the Huguenots. Henry espoused 
Elizabeth, daughter of Maximilian II., who was favorably 
disposed toward them, and Margaret, the king's sister, was 
married to Henry of Navarre. 

Coligny at Court. — Meanwhile Ooligny Avas received 
with marked consideration at court, where he soon obtained 
great influence oyer the king.* Under his direction troops 
were sent into the Netherlands to aid the Protestants. Nego- 
tiations w r ere opened with the reformed princes of Germany, 
and a declaration of war against Spain appeared imminent. 

Attempt to Assassinate Coligny. — Catherine, fearful 
of Coligny's power, resolved to put him out of the way.f 
Three days after the marriage of Henry and Margaret, 
Coligny was fired upon while returning from the Louvre. 
Charles, full of indignation, Avent at once to the admiral. 
The threats cf the Huguenots alarmed Catherine. On the 
king's return to the palace she waited upon him with her 
advisers, assured him that he or the Huguenots must fall, 
and besought him to consent to the death of their chiefs. 
Charles, finally starting up, shouted : " Perish all the Hugue- 
nots then ! Let not one remain to reproach me!" Lists of 
the Huguenots were accordingly distributed; the conspira- 
tors were to be distinguished by a white badge on the left 
arm and a white cross on the hat; and the signal for the 
slaughter was to be given in the early morning of St Bar- 
tholomew's Day by the bell of the Palace of Justice. 

* " My father," said the king, taking the venerable admiral caressingly by the hand, 
" we hold yon now, and you shall never escape us again." 

+ It was planned that the assassin should be a retainer of the Guises. The Hugue- 
nots would naturally rise to defend their leader, and then the royal troops would fall 
upon both parties as violators of the public peace. 



130 



THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. 



[1572. 



Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). — While it was 
yet dark, Catherine, impatient lest Charles should waver, 
ordered the great bell of St. Germain l'Auxerrois to be 

tolled. Lights sud- 
denly streamed out 
from the windows, 
and the streets were 
thronged with armed 
men. Presently a 
fl pistol shot was heard. 
fj| The Duke of Guise 
jlljl hurried with a party 
i of soldiers to Co- 
ligny's house. He 
remained below, un- 
willing to face his victim, but the men rushed up stairs. 
They found an old man at prayer. "Are you Coligny?" 
snouted the leader. " I am," was the calm reply. He was 
quickly dispatched and his body thrown out of the window, 
that Guise might feast his eyes on the spectacle. In every 
street and house the slaughter now raged. Neither women 
nor children were spared. Private revenge satisfied itself 
under the reigning terror, and suitors murdered their rivals, 
debtors their creditors, and heirs-at-law their nearest kin., 
Charles, who had reluctantly ordered the crime, was now 
wild to assist in it. "He was seen," says Bran tome, "firing 
from a window of the Louvre upon the miserable fugitives."! 




ST. GE.IIt.-AIN L AUXERROIS. 



* This church is supposed to have been founded by King Childebert, in the sixth 
century. Destroyed by the Normans, it was rebuilt by Robert the Pious. It was the 
favorite place of worship of the English during their occupation of Paris in 1423, 
and was by them liberally repaired and beautified. The early artists of France took 
great pride in its adornment. Many eminent persons have been interred within its 
walls ; and from its pulpit, in more recent times, the thrilling eloqueuce of Bourda- 
loue and Masillon has charmed the world. 

t This incident is unfortunately well authenticated. Voltaire informs us, in ono 



1572.] 



CHARLES IX 



131 



Henry of Navarre and the Prince of Conde were brought 
before him, and only saved their lives by changing their 
faith. Three long days of terror passed ere silence fell upon 




I HE MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW (AUGUST 24, I572). 



this fearful scene. Meanwhile the news of the massacre 
traveled with marvellous speed over France, and each city 
in turn had its own St. Bartholomew. No less than 30,000 
persons perished in all. 

Renewal of the War. —This great crime, says Duruy, 
was as useless as are all crimes. The war broke out with 
greater fury than ever. The Huguenots were exasperated, 

of the notes to the Henriade, that he had heard the Marshal de Tesse mention that, 
having in his youth met an old gentleman ahove a hundred years of age, who had 
served in the guards of Charles IX., he questioned him on the suhject of the mas- 
sacre, and asked him if it was true that the king had fired on his subjects as they fled 
in terror past the Louvre. " Yes," answered the old man, " it is true. I myself, sir, 
loaded his carbine for him. 1 ' 



132 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1574. 

not daunted, while with them were allied great numbers of 
the more moderate Catholics. Kochelle defended itself so 
desperately that Charles was forced to accord liberty of wor- 
ship to the Huguenots of the district. 

Death of Charles. — The health of the king declined 
from the fatal day of St. Bartholomew. He was a prey to 
the> keenest remorse, and in his dying hours was haunted by 
the spectres of the murdered Huguenots. 

Henry III. (1574 to 1589 = 15 years), king cf Poland, 
on learning of his brother's death,* lied from his Polish sub- 
jects by night and returned to Prance. Cold, cruel, and 
frivolous, he neglected all state affairs, and spent his time, 
with a band of boon companions, in orgies so disgraceful as 
to shock the society of even that infamous age.f 

The League. — Henry, then Duke of Anjou, had been a 
prominent adviser of Catherine during St. Bartholomew. The 
Huguenots rose once more as they saw him on the throne. 
Plenry of Navarre and Conde, escaping from Paris, again 
took the field. They were joined by Swiss and German 
troops, and their party became so strong that the king and 
Catherine were forced to grant them terms which filled the 
Catholics with dismay. A league was formed, headed by 
the brilliant Duke of Guise,| which gained multitudes of 
adherents, and at the States-General (1576) was all-pow T erful. 
Henry, with a gleam of unaccustomed shrewdness, declared 



* It wns considered remarkable in those days of slow traveling and no telegraphs, 
that the tidings reached him at Cracow in thirteen days. 

t Now he attended a hall, dressed in female attire, with rich necklaces on his bare 
neck, and affecting the mien and gait of a fashionable beauty ; now in the garb of a 
penitent, and with coarse buffoonery, he followed the shrines of saints through the 
streets; and now, with his wife, he went from doer to door seeking to buy little 
dogs, monkeys, and paroquets, of which he was very fond. 

% He was known as Le Balafre (the scarred), because of a scar on the cheek. lie 
was the idol of Paris. His partisans claimed the throne for him as the descendant 
of Charlemagne, and talked of deposing Henry III., " whose ancestor was that usurper, 
Hugh Capet, 1 ' and of shutting him up in a elokte:-, "as Pepin did Cailderic." 



1576.] HENRY III. 133 

himself the chief of the League, and required his officers to 
take its oath. 

Progress of the Strife. — This step of the king deprived 
Guise of all excuse for disloyalty, but it drove the Huguenots 
to arms. The hostility of the Guises led Catherine to favor 
the Huguenots, and (1578) she went to Navarre with her 
" flying squadron " of court beauties, and spent over a year 
at the south, seeking to conciliate her rebellious subjects. 
Henry of Navarre gained a brilliant victory at Coutras,* but, 
neglecting his advantage, he hastened into Beam, like a 
knight-errant of the Middle Ages, to lay his trophies at the 
feet of his favorite Countess de Grammont. Soon after 
Conde died of poison. On the death of the Duke of Anjou 
(formerly Duke of Alencon), brother of the king, Henry 
became next heir to the throne, f The king, dreading almost 
equally the success of either party, grew more and more 
into discredit. Guise and his friends artfully fomented the 
popular dissatisfaction. Henry III. had forbidden Guise to 
enter Paris. He came, however, and was received with all the 
honors of a king. Henry, alarmed, sent for his Swiss guards. 
Their appearance excited the populace. Pavements were torn 
up, barricades erected, and. chains stretched across the streets. 
The soldiers were quickly overpowered. The terrified mon- 
arch appealed to Guise to check the mob. He went out with 
only a riding-whip in his hand. The barricades fell as 'by 
magic, and the Swiss were liberated. Paris could not con- 
tain two kings, and that night Henry III. fled to Blois. Ne- 
gotiations being opened, the weak Henry yielded, and agreed 

* After this battle Henry rushed among his infuriated soldiers, crying : " No more 
blood ! Spare them all ! They are Frenchmen, and brave men ! " And at supper, 
when some of his officers were indulging in pleasantry, he checked them, saying: 
"Gentlemen, surely this is a time of grief, even for the conquerors." 

+ Seldom has a claim to the throne been traced from so distant an ancestor. His 
relationship to Henry III. was in the twenty-first degree, and he was nine removes 
from St. Louis. 



134 



THE CIVIL-EELIGIOUS WARS. 



[1583. 



to make Guise lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and to 
convoke the states. 
Assassination of Guise.— The scene now shifts to 

the picturesque castle of 
Blois. The states met 
(1588), and all eyes were 
turned to Guise. Henry 
resolved to be rid of his 
dreaded rival. One day 
the duke was summoned 
to the royal cabinet. As 
he lifted the tapestry 
hanging, the assassins 
closed about him, and 
the work was soon done. 
The duke's brother, Car- 
dinal Lorraine, shared a 
similar fate.* 

The Two Henrys United. — This murder aroused Paris 
to frenzy. f Henry was excommunicated by the Pope. The 
Sorbonne declared the people released from their allegiance. 
Whole provinces revolted. Driven to desperation, Henry 
turned for help to the Huguenots, and effected a reconcilia- 
tion with Henry of Navarre. Their combined forces then 
marched upon Paris. At this juncture the hand of an as- 
sassin turned the tide of affairs. 
Assassination of the King. — A fanatical monk, by means 




HENRY, DUKE OF GUISE. 



* Catherine lay dying in the chamber beneath. "Madame,'' 1 said Henry, as he 
entered, "I have made myself King of France; I have killed the King of Paris.'" 
Catherine, startled, exclaimed: "God grant that it may not make you king of 
nothing. 1 ' 

t Processions thronged the churches, in which prayers for the martyred saint 
were mingled with execrations of his hated murderer. Bands of half-clothed men, 
women, and children marched, with wax-lights in their hands, to the Cemetery of 
the Innocents, where they solemnly extinguished their tapers, crying : " Thus perish 
the detestable race cf the Valois." 



1589.] HENRY III. 135 

of a forged note, secured admission to the royal tent. As Henry 
opened the message to read it, the assassin drew a knife and 
plunged it into his body. The guards rushed in and quickly 
dispatched the murderer. But Henry's hour had come. 
Nothing in all his life had so become him as hisunanner of 
leaving it. He forgave his enemies, and, embracing Henry 
of Navarre, caused all his nobles, in his dying presence, to 
take the oath of allegiance to him. 




FAC-SIMILE OF THE WRITING OF CATHERINE DE' MEDICI. 

The House of Valois was now extinct. Its thirteen kings had ruled 
France for two and a half centuries. It is a house distinguished in 
history for its singular misfortunes. Every monarch save one (Charles 
V.) left a record of loss or shame. Philip VI. was defeated at Sluys 
and Crecy, and lost Calais. John was beaten at Poitiers, and died a 
prisoner in England. Charles VI. was conquered at Azincourt, and 
forced to acknowledge, by treaty, the English monarch heir of his 
kingdom. Charles VII. was only a shadow of a king, owed his crown 
to the devotion of a peasant girl, and finally starved himself for fear 
of poisoning by his son. Louis XI. was taken prisoner by the Duke 
of Burgundy, and for days was in hourly danger of being put to death ; 
he died hated by all, and dreading the revenge of those he had so 
cruelly wronged. Charles VIII. and Louis XII. met nothing but re- 
verse in Italy. Francis I. was taken prisoner at Pavia. Henry II. 
suffered the mortification of the French defeat at St. Quentin, and was 
slain in a tilting match. His three sons are linked in history with 
their mother, Catherine de' Medici. Francis II. fortunately died young. 
Charles IX. perished with the memory of St. Bartholomew resting 
heavily upon him ; and Henry III. fell by the hand of a murderer.* 

* ' : The assassinations take place in a connected series; the assassin, generally, 
being in his tarn assassinated. Francis, Duke of Guise, the deliverer of Calais, is 
assassinated by the pistol-shot of a fanatic. The Prince of Conde is assassinated by 



13G 



HENRY I Y 






[1589 




HENRY IY. 



VL— THE BOURBON HOUSE. 

1539 to 1789 = 200 Years. 

| ENRY of Navarre (1589 to 

Jk 1610 = 21 years) now suc- 
ceeded to the throne as 
Henry IV. His position was 
full of danger. The League, 
the Pope, and Philip of Spain 
were banded against him. 
The Catholic nobles insisted 
upon his abandonment of 
the Protestant religion as 
the price of his crown, and 
20,000 soldiers quitted his 
standard. He retained a few 
of the leaders by promising to protect the Catholic faith. 
This concession offended in turn the stern Huguenots of 
Poitou and Gascony. Scarcely one-sixth of France declared 
for Henry and against the League. In Paris the Duke of 
Mayenne, brother of the murdered Guise, assumed the title 
of Lieutenant-General, and the Cardinal of Bourbon — who 
was then Henry's prisoner— was proclaimed king, under the 
title of Charles X. 

Five years of civil war ensued before Henry secured 
possession of Paris. A successful resistance of Mayenne's 
superior forces at Argues * was a favorable augury. Elizabeth 

a shot in the hack of the head while he is helpless and getting his wounds dressed. 
Henry, Duke of Giiis- 3 , assists at the murder of Coligny, and is assassinated hy the 
daggers of Henry III. Henry in turn is assassinated by Clement, a monk, acting 
under the orders of the Duke of Guise's sister. 11 — Chambers. 

* After this battle he wrote to the Duke of Crillon : "Go hang yourself, brave 
Crillon ! We have fought at Arques, and you wern't there.'" 



1589.] 



HENRY IV. 



137 



sent him some English regiments; the Venetians acknowl- 
edged him king of France; and even the Pope began to 
waver, saying that "Mayenne spent more time over his 
dinner than Henry in bed." The famous battle of Ivry* 
occurred the next year. " My comrades," said Navarre, "if 




you lose sight of your stand- 
ards, rally to my white plume; 
you will find it on the road 
to victory and honor." Every- 
where on the field where the 
blows fell thickest, was Henry 
to be seen, conspicuous for 
valor and prowess. The Leaguers 



THE BATTLE OF IVRY. 



were 



utterly routed, f 



* At supper, on the night before this battle, he had spoken harshly to a German 
officer named Schomberg. While he was marshaling his troops for the fight, he 
stopped his horse before him. "Monsieur de Schomberg," he said, "I know ycur 
valor and ask your pardon, embrace me." " Ah, sire," cried the poor officer, over- 
. come by the condescension of the king, " your majesty wounded me yesterday, to-day 
you kill me." 

t The weather was stormy, with heavy rain, lightning, thunder, and violent gusts 
of wind. For a moment the clouds rolled away, and then " the strange spectacle was 



138 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1590. 

Paris was again besieged, but just as its fall seemed inevita- 
ble, the Duke of Parma came to the rescue, and Henry had 
to withdraw, foiled and humbled. Disasters followed thick. 
All Navarre's daring tactics glanced harmlessly from the im- 
perturbable caution of this great Spanish general. The fruits 
of Ivry were lost. Henry's treasury was empty.* Even in 
his own camp the nobles forwarded the war, hoping to dis- 
member France and recover their feudal powers. 

Henry becomes a Catholic. — Convinced that only a 
Catholic king could unite distracted France, Henry finally 
resolved upon what he himself termed "the perilous leap." 
In the cathedral of St. Denis, upon his bended knees, he 
publicly abjured his Calvinistic errors^ and was restored to 
the bosom of the Church (1593). One year afterward he was 
crowned king of France and Navarre. 

Close of the Civil War. — It was a proud moment for 
Henry when he was presented with the keys of Baris, amid 
shouts of " Long live the king ! " The Spanish garrison sur- 
rendered, and marched out with the honors of war.f No act 
of revenge marred his triumph. His generous bearing, as he 
passed through the city, J quickly stole the hearts of the 
populace. The provinces rapidly followed the example of 
the capital. The great nobles, however, hung back, bargain- 
presented of two great armies fighting in the air. Fresh clouds withdrew the com- 
batants from sight before the issue of the ghostly contest could be ascertained. " 
This curious mirage, in that superstitious time, impressed both armies with the be- 
lief that other warriors than themselves were deciding the fate of that eventful day. 

* "He was the poorest of gentlemen, this most lovable of kings ; and hints were 
given that his majesty's apparel was not altogether free from darns or his boots from 
holes. Nothing kept its gloss but the plume of white feathers which swayed above 
his head, his bright sword, and his unruffled good humor.' 1 — White. 

+ Henry stood at the gate of St. Denis as they defiled past. " Good-by, gentle- 
men," said he, laughingly, in reply to their salute ; " my compliments to your master, 
but don't come here f.gain." 

% One of his soldiers took a loaf of bread from a baker's shop. Henry, who saw 
the act, ran after him, sword in hand, saying: " Carry that back instantly or I will 
kill you." 



1594.] 



HEKRY IV 



lc9 



ing for their loyalty, and no less than 30,000,000 francs were 
spent in purchasing their allegiance. 

War with Spain (1595-8) grew out of the fact that Henry 
considered Philip II. his bitterest foe, and also that a foreign 
war would unite rival factions. 
At first Henry met with some 
successes, but his finances were 
low and his army small. Many 
Huguenots, disgusted by his 
defection, or disappointed at 
seeing the honors they had 
earned bestowed upon their 
enemies, deserted his cause. He 
himself was fond of pleasure, 
and, in the society of his female 
favorites, sometimes forgot the 
duties of , a king. The loss 
of Calais and Amiens finally 
aroused him from his lethargy. 
" My friends," said he, " I have 
long enough played king of 
France; it is time for me to 
show them kino- of Navarre." 

O FH1LIF II. OF SPAIN. 

He took the field. Amiens was 

recaptured after an obstinate siege, and, by the peace of 

Verv ins (1598), Philip surrendered all his conquests except 

Cambrai. 

End of the League. — Meanwhile Henry having received 
absolution from the Pope, who had acknowledged him king 
of France, Mayenne, the leader of the League, sent in his 
submission.* He was treated so generously that henceforth 

* Henry received him in the garden, find, during the long conversation, walked 
him briskly up and down the avenue. Panting and puffing, the poor Mayenne— who 




140 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1598. 

lie became one of the king's most faithful servants. The 
League quickly dissolved. 

The Edict of Nantes (1598) finally closed this devas- 
tating civil war. It guaranteed to the Huguenots liberty of 
conscience and of worship, eligibility to all public employ- 
ments and offices, and a chamber of justice to protect them 
in their rights. They were allowed to maintain ministers, 
and to hold certain fortified places. They were to pay tithes 
to the Church, and to observe its festivals and holy-days. For 
nearly a century the Protestants enjoyed substantial toleration 
under this edict. 

Summary. — The three sons of Henry II. successively ascend the 
throne. Young and inexperienced, they are only the tools of their 
crafty mother, Catherine de' Medici, and the ambitious house of Guise. 
The wars which they wage against the Huguenots headed by Conde, 
Coligny, and Henry of Navarre, characterize the latter half of the cen- 
tury. The massacre of St. Bartholomew, the assassination of Coligny, 
Francis Duke of Guise, Conde, Henry Duke of Guise, and Henry III., 
are horrible epochs in this bloody era of history. Henry of Navarre 
wins the battles of Arques and Ivry ; becomes a Catholic ; the Leaguers 
submit ; the edict of Nantes ends the religious wars of France. 

Manners and Customs. — Hunting was the favorite pastime. Louis 
XI , himself fond of the chase, forbade it to all classes under penalty 
of hanging. He even searched the castles of the nobles for concealed 
nets or sporting-arms. Charles VIII. hunted daily, and extended the 
privilege to the nobility. Great splendor was displayed in sporting 
equipages. The netting establishment of Francis I. included "one 
captain, one lieutenant, twelve mounted huntsmen, six varlets to 
attend the bloodhounds, six whips, who had under their charge sixty 
hounds, and one hundred men on foot, carrying large stakes for fixing 
the nets and tents, which were borne on fifty six-horse chariots." 
We can imagine a train of hunters issuing from the gates of a castle 
on a clear morning. The pack of hounds, eager for the chase, are fol- 

was immensely fat and short cf breath— dared not interrupt his royal master, but 
dragged his ponderous bulk around till he was nearly dead with fatigue. At last he 
stopped and begged to be allowed to rest. " Well, cousin," cried the king, laughing 
heartily, "I am glad you have finally spoken. This is the only punishment 1 intend 
to inflict on you in return for all your opposition." 



THE CIVIL-KELIGIOUS WAKS. 141 

lowed by the mounted sportsmen, each with his trained leopard or pan- 
ther sitting behind him on the saddle, or a falcon perched on his wrist. 
Ladies are there ; some in gay six-horse chariots, and some on horse. 
There is a host of pages and varlets, and all are in handsome apparel, 
with ribbons fluttering to the breeze. When the dogs start the game, 
the leopard jumps from the saddle and springs after it. As soon as he 
has caught it, the hunters throw him a piece of raw flesh, when he 
gives up his prey and remounts behind his master. — The falcon was 
used in hunting feathered game. These birds were imported at great 
cost, and a long course of training was necessary to perfect them. A 
well-trained falcon was a present fit for a king. — At a hunting-party 
given by Louis XII. to the Archduke Maximilian, the archduchess was 
killed by a fall from her horsa. The king, " with a view to divert 
his mind,'" gave his best falcons to the bereaved husband, which, we 
are told, " materially lessened his sorrow." — Animal combats were still 
a royal pastime. On one such occasion the excitable Charles IX. was 
with difficulty dissuaded from leaping into the arena alone to attack a 
lion which had torn some of his best dogs to pieces. His brother, 
Henry III., was differently disposed, for dreaming one night that his 
lions were devouring him, he had them all killed the next day. — Many 
tales are told of the adroitness of thieves in these days. Charles IX., 
wishing to test their skill, sent for ten of the most expert to attend a 
grand banquet, with full liberty to pursue their profession. After the 
dinner and ball were over, they showed their plunder to the king-, 
which was "over 3,000 crowns," including money, jewels, and even 
cloaks, " at which the king thought he should die with laughter." 
This royal host allowed them to keep what they had earned at the 
expense of his guests, but forbade them to " continue this sort of life," 
making them soldiers instead. — At mourning and funerals the king 
never wore black, but scarlet or violet ; the queen wore white. Thus 
Mary of England was called " La Reine blanche " (white queen), after 
the death of Louis XII. A royal widow kept her couch for six weeks 
in a darkened apartment, lighted only by wax tapers, and attended by 
a few of her ladies. Etiquette required the same for a duchess ; but 
the Wife of a knight arose on the tenth day, and sat in front of the 
bed, on a black sheet, during the remaining days of the six weeks. 
Ladies attended the funerals of their parents, but not of their hus- 
bands. The manner in which grand funerals were celebrated is curi- 
ously illustrated by that of the husband of " The Lady of Beaujeu," in 
1503. A famous tight-rope dancer performed on a very high rope, 
with e< all sorts of graceful tricks, such as dancing grotesque dances to 
music, and hanging to the rope by his feet and his teeth." A female 
dancer also added to the entertainment, " throwing somersaults, and 
performing graceful Moorish and other peculiar dances," These re- 



142 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. 

markable obsequies lasted two or three days, and were observed by 
the king and 30,000 persons. — Coaches were introduced in the time ox 
Henry II. For a long time there were only three in Paris : one for the 
queen, one for Diana of Poitiers, and one owned by a corpulent noble- 
man, who, " being too fat to ride on horseback, had to be carried in a 
coach like a woman." — Anne of Brittany introduced a low head-dress, 
consisting of strips of velvet, or of black and violet silk, over bands 
of white linen, which encircled the face, and fell down over the back 
and shoulders. Men adopted short tunics, plaited, and tight at the 
waist, with full or puffed sleeves. Catherine de' Medici brought the 
fashions of paint, patches, and perfumes from Italy. She also intro- 
duced high-starched ruffs, kept out by wires, which were not only 
worn by ladies, but supplanted the small, upright collar in male attire. 
Francis I. led the styles in his time. "Those were the days of broad 
sombrero hats, fringed with gold and looped up with precious jewels 
and feathers ; of costly cloaks, heavy with gold or silver embroidery, 
and hung over the shoulder ; of slashed hose and richly-chased rapiers; 
of garments of cloth of gold and of satin, covered with diamonds, emer- 
alds, and Oriental pearls. The ladies wore Eastern silks and golden 
tissues, with trimmings of rare furs ; sparkling coifs and jewelled nets, 
with glittering veils. They rode on horses whose pedigrees were as 
undoubted as their own, covered with velvet housings and silken nets, 
woven with jewels, their manes plaited with gold and precious stones. 
But these illustrious ladies considered gloves a royal luxury, and were 
weak in respect of stockings."— [Mrs. Elliot.] Henry III. was a de- 
votee of fashion, and the day his queen was crowned spent its greatest 
part in assisting at her toilet. He covered his face with cosmetics 
every night to improve his complexion.— Table-cloths came in use 
among the nobility in the 16th century. Fine linens as well as costly 
garments were counted sufficient treasures to be bought second-hand, 
even by kings and queens. At the sale of a deceased nobleman's effects 
in 1572, we find Catherine de' Medici adding to her table-linen. The 
dead man's garments were auctioned off, his mantles, breeches, boots, 
slippers, and other wearing apparel being eagerly bidden for by such 
high-bred noblemen as the Duke d'Aumale, the Cardinal de Bourbon, 
and the Duke d'Anjou, whose dignity was not above making the best 
of a bargain in a dead friend's old clothes. 

References for lieadhig. 

Smiles, The Huguenots.— Epochs of Hist., Era of the Protestant Reformation.— 
Fisher's and D'Aubigne's Histories of the Reformation— Martyn \s and Browning's 
Histories of the Huguenots.— Hanna's Wars of the Huguenots.— Freer 's Histories of 
Henry III. and Marie de" Medici.— Lingard' 's Hist, of England (Era of the Reforma- 
tion).— Macaulay's Ivry {poem).—SeivanVs Anecdotes and Biographiana, 



THE CIVIL- RELIGIOUS WARS. 143 



Events of the Fifth Fpoch in Chronological Order. 

PAGE 

1559-1560. Francis II. Power of the Guises. The Reforma- 
tion. Party of the Huguenots. Conspiracy of 
Amboise 125-6 

1560-1574. Charles IX. Catherine de' Medici. " Massacre of 
Vassy." First War (1562-3). Battle of Dreux. 
Death of Guise. Peace of Amboise. Second 
War (1567-8). Battle of St. Denis. Peace of 
Lonjumeau. Third War (1568-70). Battle of 
Jarnac. Death of Conde. Battle of Moncon- 
tour. Peace of St. Germain. St. Bartholomew. 
Fourth War (1573). Peace of Rochelle . . 126-32 

1574-1589. Henry III. Fifth War (1575-6). Peace of Mon- 
sieur.* The League. Le Balafre. Sixth War 
(1577). Peace of Bergerac. Seventh War (1580), 
called the War of the Lovers. Peace of Fleix. 
Eighth War (1586-9), the War of the Three 
Henrys. Battle of Coutras. Day of the Bar- 
ricades. Assassination of the Duke of Guise 
and of Henry III 182-5 

1589-1610. Henry IV. Battles of Arques and Ivry. Edict of 

Nantes 136-40 

distinguished Names of the 16th Centiry. 

Stabetais (1483-1553), a monk and then a physician ; a famous satirist of the age. 

Clement Marot (1495-1544), the first French poet of the century. 

Z, 'Jfopitat (1505-1573), Chancellor of France, and a statesman of singularly pure 
and upright character. 

Montaigne (1533-1592), author of delightful moral essays, tinged, however, with 
skepticism. 

Jacques Auguste de Thou (1553-1617), " the one historian of the 16th century." 

Francois de Malherbe (1555-1628), u was proud of being called the tyrant of 
words and syllables ; choosing this word and rejecting that, he may be said to have 
created modern French. He would often spoil half a ream of paper in perfecting a 
single stanza." 

* This name in France was given to the eldest brother of the king. The Duke of 
Anjou negotiated this treaty. 



TrjE ABSOLUTE IJONARCIJY, 



1598 to 1789 = 191 Years. 




.TATE of the Country'.— France 
was now bleeding from a hundred 
wounds. During the forty years 
since the accession of Charles IX., 
128,000 houses had been destroyed 
and 800,000 persons killed. Thou- 
sands had been reduced to beg- 
gary. Agriculture was almost a 
forgotten art. Vast districts were 
covered by marshes and forests, 
traversed by neither roads nor canals. There was a heavy 
debt. The people paid as taxes about 200,000,000 francs 
annually, but only one-sixth of it found its way into the 
treasury. His warrior life over, Henry, now sought to reform 
these gigantic abuses, restore the health and strength of the 
kingdom, and give to France its former position among the 
nations of Europe. 

Sully and the Finances. — The regulation of the finances 
was intrusted to the king's tried friend, the illustrious 

Geo(/)*ap7iica2 Questions.— "Locate Catalonia. IRoussillon (sel-yon). Corbie. 
Bocroi (rwa). Courtrai. Dunkirk. Sens. Charleroi. Tournay. Brussels. Ant- 
werp. Amsterdam. Maestrecht. Seneffe. Philipsburg. Cassel. Mayence. Worms 
Spires. Heidelberg. Fleurus. Namur. Steinkirk. Byswick. Blenheim. Eamil- 
lies. Malplaquet. Eaucous. 



1598.] 



H E H It Y I V . 



145 




Sully.* This famous minister traveled over France, exam- 
ining accounts, reforming the collection of revenue, com- 
pelling the disgorgement of 
ill-gotten wealth, and estab- 
lishing a system hitherto un- 
known. The laying of taxes, 
except by royal order, regis- 
tered by parliament, was for- 
bidden. This put an end to 
the plunder hitherto exacted 
by nobles and governors on 
their own account. The ex- 
emption from taxation of the 
nobility and all who made 
arms a profession was abol- 
ished. So well were affairs 

managed that, with one-fourth the former taxes, by the end of 
the reign a surplus of 20,000,000 francs lay in the treasury. 
Public Improvements. — Every avenue of business felt 
the impulse of this vigorous and beneficent administration. 
France began to smile again. Sheltered from the pelting 
storm of war, the people basked in the calm of a blessed 
peace. f Public works were undertaken ; the old highways 
were repaired and new roads built ; the capital was embel- 

* Sully entered the service of Henry of Navarre when only eleven years old, and 
followed him in all his adventures and battles. Devoted to his master and to France, 
he cut down his own woods at Kosny to aid the king in his extremity ; and, although 
himself a zealous Protestant, counselled Henry to become a Catholic, in order to 
finish the war and save the country. He dared to tell the most unwholesome truths 
to the king— for whose faults he had little indulgence— and Henry had the good sense 
to take all in kindness, and everywhere to support his faithful, clear-headed minister. 
Motley, in his John of Barneveld, sums up Sully's character thus : " Hard worker, 
good hater, conscientious politician, who filled his own coffers without dishonesty, 
and those of the state without tyranny; unsociable, arrogant, pious, very avaricious 
and inordinately vain, there was but one living being for whom Sully had greater 
reverence and affection than for the king, and that was the Duke of Sully himself." 

t " If I live,'" said Henry, " every man shall have a fowl to put in his pot for his 
Sunday dinner." 



14G THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1598. 

lished with churches, hospitals, bridges, and quays ; fortresses 
arose; the army was re-equipped; and new dockyards her- 
alded a growing navy. Workmen were allured from Holland 
and Italy ; and the famous silk manufactures of Lyons and 
the tapestry workers of Paris soon outshone their masters. 

Government. — While questions of finance were thus left 
to his ministers, Henry labored assiduously to establish the 
authority of the law, and, by reducing the privileges . of the 
nobles, to strengthen the throne. In spite of his popularity 
and good-humor, he had high ideas of the royal prerogative, 
and ill brooked any interference with his kingly pleasure.* 
He thus laid anew the foundation of that despotism which 
culminated in the reign of his grandson, Louis XIV. 

Henry's Domestic Relations were unfortunate. Mar- 
garet, the bride, so linked with the events of St. Bartholo- 
mew, led a life of unblushing infamy. The king secured a 
divorce, and married Marie de' Medici, who deceived and 
hated her husband, and who conspired not only against his 
policy but his life. At the same time Henry's notorious gal- 
lantries f grieved his friends, and furnished a pretext to his 
enemies for constant revolt. 

A Formidable Conspiracy was fomented by the Duke 
of Savoy and the king of Spain to kill Henry, and divide up 
France among the great nobles. At the head of this rebel- 
lion was Marshal de Biron (bi-roN), known as the " lightning 
of France," who had fought at Henry's side at Arques and 
Ivry, and was his bosom friend. Forgiven once, on a renewed 

* When Parliament hesitated to register the edict of Nantes, he said to them : " My 
will is reason enough for you; and, where subjects are loyal, princes need give no 
other. I am king now, and speak as a king, and mean to he obeyed." 

+ His name was long connected with Gabrielle d'Estrees, whom he would have 
married had Margaret consented to a divorce during the life-time of the favorite. 
Her sudden and mysterious death threw him into ah agony of grief for three tvee/cs, 
by which time he had met Henriette d'Entragues, otherwise known as the Marchion- 
ess de Verneuil, a cold, ambitious, designing woman, who kept him more or less her 
slave to the end of his life. 



1602.] HE^itY IV. 147 

attempt the marshal was executed for treason. The sup- 
pression of this and other revolts firmly established the king's 
authority at home. 

"The Grand Design." — Henry and his minister had 
now for some time meditated a great political scheme. Eu- 
rope was to be reorganized into fifteen monarchies and repub- 
lics, forming a grand confederation of states. A general 
council, consisting of deputies from each, was to decide any 
question of dispute. The reign of right was to replace that 
of might, and universal peace was to be supreme. Prepara- 
tory to this the house of Habsburg was to be humiliated. 
All Europe was breathlessly watching the launching of his 
tremendous armies, when a tragedy occurred which changed 
the fate of France. 

Assassination of the King. — Marie de' Medici had 
been crowned as queen of France, and invested with the 
regency of the kingdom during the absence of the sovereign 
with his army. Henry had driven out to watch the prepara- 
tions for her triumphal entrance into Paris. Passing through 
a narrow street, a confusion in the road stopped the coach. 
At that instant a man named Eavaillac plunged a knife into 
the king's breast. " The gigantic fabric of an European con- 
federation was shattered by the stroke of a broken table- 
knife, sharpened on a carriage-wheel." 

LOUIS XIII. 

1610 to 1643 = 33 Years. 

The Regency. — Louis XIII.* was a spoiled child of nine 
years at his father's death. His mother, Marie de' Medici, 

* It is related that the night after the assassination of Henry IV., his little son, 
Louis XIII., screaming with terror, cried out that he saw the same men who had 
murdered his father coming to kill him. Louis was not to be pacified until he was 
carried to his mother's bed. To this infantile terror, this early association with 



148 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 



[1G10. 



who became regent, was a woman of weak character, ruled 
by an unprincipled Italian named Concini, and his wife, 
Leonora. Sully, surrounded by those who had sworn his 




MARIE DE' MEDICI INVESTED WITH THE REGENCV. 
(From a painting by Rubens.) 

ruin, lost all influence and retired to his estates. The no- 
bles, as of old, levied taxes, exacted tolls, conferred letters of 
nobility, and increased the imposts. "The time of the kings 
has passed," said they. 

Royal Marriages. — Marie's sympathies being with Spain, 
a marriage was negotiated between Louis XIII. and Anne 



death and murder, may be traced his strange character; weak in body and mind, 
timid, suspicious, melancholy, superstitious, an undutiful son, a bad husband, and 
an unworthy king. To his credit, however, be it said, he was pure in morals— a 
rare virtue in the kings of his race.— Mrs. Elliott. 



1614] 



LOUIS XIII 



149 



of Austria, daughter of the Spanish king. Louis's sister 
Elizabeth was also betrothed to the Prince of Spain, after- 
ward Philip IV.* 

The States-General were assembled the same year the 
king became of age (1614). The three orders were loud 
in relating their several 
grievances ; the iiers-etat 
especially urged the op- 
pressed condition of the 
people ; f but there was no 
agreement in anything ex- 
cept among the two higher 
orders, to overbear the third. 
This is memorable in his- 
tory as the last meeting of 
the states \ for one hundred 
and seventy-four years. L0UIS XIII# 

Louis becomes King. — By the advice of a favorite named 
De Luynes, who had won the regard of the king by his skill in 
laying sparrow-traps, Louis, now sixteen years old, determined 
to assert his royalty. Concini was assassinated in the Louvre; 
Leonora was executed as a sorceress: Marie was banished 




* A league of the cobles, headed by Conde (a grandson of the Conde killed at Jar- 
nac), was formed to oppose these unpopular marriages. When Louis went to Bor- 
deaux to meet his bride, he was followed by two armies— one to protect and one to 
attack him — but neither came to blows. After his return from his bridal tour, Louis 
entertained Conde and his friends as his loyal subjects, declared ihey had done noth- 
ing to his disfavor, and actually paid the troops levied against him ! 

t The speaker for the bourgeoisie, who was obliged to kneel in addressing the 
king, having ventured to say that the French formed but one family, of which the 
seigneurs were the elder members and the common people the younger, the nobility 
complained bitterly of this affront: "It is a great insolence," said their president, 
"to wish to establish any sort of equality between us and them; they are only to us 
as the valet to his master.' 1 — In their memorials the nobles demanded that "the com- 
mon people be forbidden to carry pistols, to wear velvet or satin, or to own any but 
ham-strung dogs. 1 ' 

X In their stead were introduced assemblies of the notables, consisting of princes 
of the blood, and certain peers, archbishops, councillors of state, marshals, and 
judges— the time of calling and the members being optional with the king. 



150 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1617. 

from court. Seven years of confusion ensued. Marie, like 
the other Medici, insatiate for power, constantly plotted to 
regain it. Louis was ruled as completely by De Luynes as 
she had been by Concini. Meantime the Huguenots, aspiring 
to form in France a Calvinistic state, levied taxes, kept up 
fortresses, employed soldiers, and called political assemblies. 
Two years of war (1621-23) checked but did not destroy 
their hopes. 

Richelieu. — Fortunately for Louis, De Luynes died, and 
the king found in Richelieu* (1624) a minister able to as- 
sert the royal dignity. Henceforth, for years, the history of 
France and her king f is but the biography of her minister. 
Richelieu had three distinct aims : (1) to destroy the Hugue- 
nots as a party; (2) to subdue the nobles; (3) to humble the 
house of Austria — all of which would tend to unify France 
and make the royal authority absolute. 

I. Overthrow of the Huguenots. — In 1627 the royal 
army laid siege to Rochelle, the capital and stronghold of the 
Huguenots. Richelieu superintended every operation. To 
cut off the town from the sea, he ordered a gigantic mole 
of stone to be built across the harbor. Twice the dyke was 
swept away by a storm ; twice it was rebuilt. Twice a pow- 
erful English fleet essayed to relieve the starving citizens ; 
twice it was forced to retire. When the city surrendered, 
after a siege of over a year.J scarcely one hundred and fifty 



* Richelieu, then bishop of Lucon, made his first appearance, as a modest-looking 
ecclesiastic, at the states (1614). Two years after he was admitted to the royal coun- 
cil by Concini. The spiritual adviser of Marie de' Medici, he shared in her disgrace. 
By his tact the quarrel between the king and the queen-mother was made up. Riche- 
lieu obtained a cardinal's hat by her intercession, and was restored to his place in the 
council (1622). 

+ It is characteristic of Louis that, while he hated his powerful minister, he was 
his veriest slave. The policy of Richelieu soon made Louis the first man in Europe, 
but the second in France. 

X On the day following the king 1 * entry, a violent tempest arose, which finally 
washed away the fatal dyke. 



1G27.] 



LOUIS XIII. 



151 



soldiers survived, and the streets were strewn with bodies, 
which the living were too weak to bury. The fortifications 
were razed to the ground, the municipal privileges forfeited, 




THE SIEGE OF ROCHELI.E. 
(From a print of the time.) 



and the Catholic religion established. To the surprise of all, 
however, the Huguenots were granted the free exercise of 
their worship. The next year their remaining cities were 
captured. Henceforth the Huguenots ceased to form a state 
within the state. 

II. Abasement of the Nobles. — The princes had, so 
far, retained their feudal fortresses, which were at once a 
reminder to them of their former strength, a terror to the 
neighboring people, and a menace to royalty. Kichelieu 
ordered (1626) their destruction. Numerous plots, some of 
which the cardinal was suspected of having himself *encour- 
aged for this very purpose, gave him an opportunity of 
wreaking his vengeance upon the heads of the aristocracy, 
and thus crushing their power. 



152 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1G80. 

The Count of Chalais headed a conspiracy of many of 
the highest nobles, including Gaston, the king's only brother, 
and even Anne of Austria. The plan was to ruin Eichelieu, 
depose Louis, and crown Gaston, who was to marry Anne of 
Austria. The cardinal feigned to yield to the storm and to 
resign his position ; but, as he expected, he was recalled by 
the king. Chalais was executed ; the other nobles were ban- 
ished; Anne of Austria was brought before the council and 
reprimanded ; * and Gaston alone escaped. With character- 
istic baseness, when he found the plot discovered, he hastened 
to the king and betrayed his accomplices. His treachery was 
rewarded with the Duchy of Orleans. 

Duelling. — In the Place Royal e, in broad daylight, as if 
to defy the king and his edict against duelling,f the Count 
de Bouteville killed the Count de Bussy, it being the twenty- 
second duel in which the former had been engaged. Al- 
though allied to one cf the most illustrious houses in 
France, he and his second were executed in the Place du 
Greve (1627). 

"Day of the Dupes" (1630).— Marie de' Medici, finding 
Richelieu superior to her intrigues, became his bitter foe. 
By tears and prayers she finally prevailed upon Louis to 
banish his "insolent minister." The courtiers nocked to the 
palace of the Luxembourg for mutual congratulation. The 
happy news was sent to Madrid, Vienna, Brussels, and Turin. 
Richelieu had ordered his coach when a messenger arrived 
from Versailles summoning him to the king's presence. Once 
there, the minister was restored to his place, and made more 

* Being openly reproached by the king with having 'wished his death that she 
might marry his brother, she coolly replied: "I should not have gained enough by 
the change." 

t "During the eighteen years preceding 1600, four thousand gentlemen had been 
thus fashionably murdered.'" 



1636.] 



LOUIS XIII. 



153 



powerful even than before. The executioner's axe was long 
busy ere the cardinal's vengeance was satiated. 

The Count of Soissons (1636) was drawn into a plot for 
the assassination of Eichelieu by the incorrigible Gaston. The 
day came. The unconscious cardinal left the council-cham- 
ber, passed down the 
staircase, and stood 
waiting for his car- 
riage in the midst 
of the conspirators. 
But Gaston, who 
was to have given 
the signal, quailed 
when the decisive 
m o m e n t arrived. 
Fearful of a dis- 
covery, Soissons fled 
to Sedan, where he 
took up arms. Spain 
lent him aid, but he fell at the close of a victorious battle. 
Orleans was once more pardoned. 

Cinq-Mars, a brilliant young noble, was the last of the 
king's favorites. Knowing Louis's dislike to Eichelieu, he 
plotted the latter's overthrow. All the cardinal's old enemies 
joined in the conspiracy. A treaty of alliance was signed 
with Spain. A copy of this falling into Richelieu's hands, he 
sent it to the king. The contemptible Orleans, as usual, 
betrayed his friends. His life was spared, but he was com- 
manded to retire from court. Cinq-Mars was executed. 

III. Abasement of Austria and Spain. — Richelieu 
lost no opportunity to weaken the Austro-Spanish power, 
and thus exalt France. He secured a marriage between 
Henriette Marie, the king's sister, and Charles Stuart, Prince 



/ 







CARDINAL RICHELIEU. 



154 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [16CG. 

of Wales — afterward the ill-fated diaries I. — who was engaged 
to the Spanish Infanta.* He supported the Protestant Gri- 
sons, and enabled them to recover the Valteline,f a province 
of which they had been despoiled by the Spaniards; and 
twice he led an army against the Duke of Savoy and the 
Spaniards, to help the Duke of Nevers, a French noble, to 
get possession of his inheritance of Mantua. 

In the Thirty Years "War Kichelieu did not hesitate 
to take the part of the German Protestant princes, in order 
to weaken the power of the emperor. He carried on the 
contest, however, with chequered fortune. True, Artois, 
Alsace, Catalonia, and Eousillon were finally annexed to 
France; but disasters were frequent, and once (1636) the 
Imperialists, taking advantage of the absence of his armies, 
penetrated to Corbie, scarce fifty miles from Paris. J They 
could have captured the cit} T , but fortunately preferred to 
retire and enjoy the immense booty already secured. 

Government. § — Parliament was compelled to register the 
royal edicts without examination.! Richelieu had no sym- 
pathy with the common people. He compared them to 
" mules, spoiled sooner by long rest than long work." "If 
they are too happy," he said, " it will not be possible to keep 
them in duty; if they were freed from taxes, they would 

* ' ; I must scandalize the world once more," said Richelieu, in allusion to this 
alliance. He had already acquired, for his leniency to the Huguenots, the name of 
Cardinal of Rochelle, or Pontiff of Ihe Protestants. 

t This was a small valley which formed communication between the Italian and 
German possessions of the two houses of Austria. 

t So great was the terror in Paris, and so deep their recollection of it, that the 
citizens long styled the time the Year of Corbie. 

§ Richelieu said with regard to his policy: "I go straight to my object; I cut 
down every thing, and then cover every thing with my scarlet robe." Words that 
make one shudder. 

|| The French kings were accustomed to have their ordinances imposing taxes 
registered by the Parliament of Paris. When this body refused, the king could 
attend in person and command the registration to be made. On such occasions he 
tat in a canopied chair, and was said to hold a " bed of justice." 



1642.] 



LOUIS XIII. 



155 



learn to be disobedient." He abolished the offices of Grand 
Admiral and Constable, that all power might be centred in 
himself. He appointed Intendants throughout the country, 
to take charge of justice, police, and finance. Docile agents 
of the government, they exercised a constant control over 
the nobles and local authorities. Royalty gained, but the 
precious remains of local liberty perished. In finance, Riche- 
lieu failed. His ^- 
costly wars antici- ' 
pated the revenues 
for three years ; 
while the taxes be- 
came intolerable. 
Richelieu favored 
commerce and pa- 
tronized civiliza- 
tion. Under him 
the French firmly 

established their foothold in Canada. [Brief Hist. U. S., p. 32.] 
He encouraged industry, and left more monuments of his 
liberality than any of the French monarchs. The French 
Academy, the Garden of Plants, the Palais Royal, and the 
Sorbonne, still cast a lustre on his memory. 
Three Deaths. — Richelieu did not live to see the full 




THE SORBOiVNE. 



* The Sorbonne, one of the most famous of the educational institutions of Paris, is 
generally associated with the name of Cardinal Richelieu, its great patron. It was 
originally founded, however, in the thirteenth century, by Robert de Sorbon, the 
chaplain and confessor of St. Louis, and. was designed to afford poor students an 
opportunity of perfecting themselves in the sciences and theology. Many of the 
most eminent men of France of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were gradu- 
ates of the Sorbonne. Tradition says that, when at the height of its celebrity, a can- 
didate for its diploma was required, without eating or drinking or quitting the 
place, to sustain himself in argument against twenty assailants, who, relieving each 
other every half hour, beset him from five in the morning until seven at night. 
Richelieu was a pupil of this institution, and under his patronagp, when at the head 
of the government, it was enlarged and completely reconstructed. Public lectures 
are delivered there gratuitously by the first scholars of France, to which students, 
rich and poor, flock from all parts of the country. 



156 THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. [1642. 

triumph of his plans. While on his way to the seat of war 
in Eoussillon he fell sick. He was borne back to Paris with 
more than Oriental pomp. His guards, bareheaded, carried 
him upon their shoulders in a sort of furnished chamber, and 
the city gates too narrow to let them pass were torn down. 
When pressed to forgive his enemies, he replied: "I have 
none but those of the state." "The great minister died," 
says Chateaubriand, '-'admired and detested." — While Kiche- 
lieu lay thus in his magnificent palace, the exiled Marie de' 
Medici had closed her eyes, in the midst of poverty, at 
Cologne. — The unfeeling Louis shrugged his shoulders when 
he heard of the cardinal's death, and coldly remarked : " There 
is a great politician gone." And now, as if to show how 
closely his life was linked with that of the powerful minister, 
Louis survived him but six months, dying on the anniversary 
of his fathers assassination (May 14, 1643). Thus passed 
away, within the space of about a year, the three prominent 
actors in this great drama of the first half of the seventeenth 
century. 

LOUIS XIV; 

1613 to 1715 = 72 Years. 

Louis XIV., being but five years old at his father's 
death, Anne of Austria was made regent. Cardinal Mazarin, 
an Italian, schooled in the policy of Kichelieu, became min- 
ister. The long reign of Louis XIV. naturally divides itself 
into three epochs : (1) the ministry of Mazarin, during which 
Louis took no part in the government, and in w T hich the 
fruits of Eichelieu's plans were gathered; (2) that of Colbert, 
his successor, when Louis governed actively; (3) the period 
from the death of Colbert to .that of Louis, during which 



1643.] 



LOUIS XIV. 



157 



great errors marred bis success, and unparalleled disasters 
befell the country. 

I. Thirty Years War. — Five days after the death of 
Louis XIII., the Duke of Engbien (oN-ge-aN), a young man 
of twenty-two, afterward known as the great Conde, won the 




BATTLE OF FKIBOURG. 



battle of Rocroi (1643), over three experienced generals and 
a body of Spanish infantry, then considered the finest in 
Europe. Joined by Turenne, the next year, he conquered 
the Imperialists at Fribourg. The contest lasted two days, 
in one of which, according to tradition, Conde threw his 
marshal's baton into the enemy's trenches, and then recov- 
ered it, sword in hand. The following year they gained the 
bloody battle of Nordlingen. With the aid of the great 
Dutch admiral, Von. Tromp, Conde, in sight of the Spanish 



158 THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. [1648. 

army, captured Dunkirk, with its valuable harbor. In 1648, 
with the battle-cry of "Remember Rocroi, Fribourg, and 
Nordlingen,* he routed the Imperialists and Spaniards at 
Lens, and ended this long and bloody war. 

The Treaty of Westphalia (1648), between France and 
Germany, gave to the French Alsace and the long-coveted 
boundary of the Rhine. They also retained Philipsburg and 
Pignerol — the keys of Germany and of Piedmont — and Toul, 
Verdun, and Metz, which had been annexed a century 
before. The independence of the United Provinces was 
acknowledged ; and the rights of conscience were granted to 
the Lutherans in Germany. Spain refusing to enter into the 
treaty, the war with that nation dragged on. 

The Wars of the Fronde. \— When the queen first 
came into power she was anxious to conciliate all parties. 
The witty Cardinal de Retz, in speaking of the general feel- 
ing of the court at this time, says: "The French language 
contains but five words — i The queen is so good.' " Jeal- 
ousies, however, arose. The nobles were aggrieved by the 
favor shown to foreigners. The enormous expenses of the 
war having called for fresh taxes, Parliament refused to 
register the new tariff, and demanded various reforms. 

Day of the Barricades (August 26, 1648).— The queen 
retorted by arresting some of the leaders of the opposition. 
On this the populace flew to arms, shut up the shops, 
stretched chains across the streets, and besieged the palace, 
shouting "Kill ! kill !" a cry which had not been heard since 
St. Bartholomew. Anne yielded, but soon after fled to St. 

* This, as well as the tradition of the baton, though sometimes questioned, accord 
well with the dash and daring of the great Conde. 

t Fronde, a sling. The leaders showed so much indecision that one of the reform- 
ing committee compared them to school-hoys slinging stones ; when the police came 
near* they ran away, only to resume their sport when the officer's back was turned. 
The jest spread and hit the general fancy. The name was taken up at once ; every- 
thing was the Fronde, and the ruling fashion was a sling. 



1648.] LOUIS XIV. 159 

Germain. The Mazarins and Frondeurs marshaled their 
forces. Many of the nobles and princes took the side of 
Parliament. The various cliques were headed by the most 
fascinating women of France. With its mingling of factions, 
rapid changing of sides, and want of purpose,* the Fronde 
was a burlesque on civil war. Raillery and sport were uni- 
versal, f The troops went forth from Paris each day decked 
with feathers and ribbons; at night, coming back defeated, 
they were received with hootings and laughter. Principles 
weighed nothing; patriotism was forgotten. Turenne was 
first a Frondeur, then went over to the Spaniards, and 
finally became a loyalist, and led the armies of the king. J 
Conde, in the beginning, declared for the court ; § then for the 
Frondeurs, and ended by selling his sword to Spain. At last 
Paris was wearied with this chaotic war, and entreated the 
return of the king. One of his first acts was to recall 
Mazarin, who had been outlawed by Parliament, and who 
was welcomed back by the same fickle crowd which had 
clamored for his exile. Thus ended the Fronde ; a bloody 
farce, in which an archbishop, beautiful women, and learned 



* " In the midst of all the trouble," says Voltaire, " the nobles assembled. It was 
believed to be in order to reform France, and to call the States-General ; but, no ! it 
was about the honor of a footstool that the queen had accorded to Madame de Pons ! " 

t The Cardinal de Retz, archbishop of Corinth, the great rival of Mazarin, and 
chief instigator of the rebellion, wore a dagger in his belt. This was nicknamed his 
" breviary ; " his troops were called the ''Regiment of Corinth ; " and, when they were 
routed, the defeat was styled the "First to the Corinthians.'" 

% While Turenne was commanding the royal army in the neighborhood of the 
Loire, thinking that Conde was one hundred and twenty miles away, he allowed his 
troops to become scattered. At night his lines were stormed and several quarters 
carried. Turenne, observing the movements by the light of the flames, with the 
instinct of genius declared : " Conde has come. He commands that army.'" Rallying 
his troops, he awaited the onset. It was now Conde's turn to recognize Turenne's 
scientific arrangement, when he quietly retired. 

§ While in the queen's own party, his pride and intolerance were so intolerable 
that she imprisoned him. To effect this she obtained from him an order for the 
seizure and detention of three or four persons whose names were left in blank ; and, 
on the authority of his own signature, the hero cf Rocroi was led quietly down a 
back stair and given over to the police. 



160 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 



[1659. 



magistrates figure by the side of the two most famous cap- 
tains of Europe. Amid the confusion the philosophic his- 
torian detects the last struggle of the aristocracy against the 
despotism of the crown. 

Peace of the Pyrenees (1659).— During the troubles 
of the Fronde, Spain had gained some advantages. Her 

troops were now directed by 
the great Conde. Turenne 
was sent to oppose him. 
These two masters of the 
art of war prolonged the 
contest with varying success. 
Mazarin, at last, secured the 
aid of Englan d . This turned 
the scale. The tattle of the.. 
Dunes* (1658) gave Dun- 
kirk to the French, who im- 
mediately made it over to 
the English. Other victories 
followed. Spain sued for 
A treaty was signed by which Louis retained Artois 
and Roussillon, with a part of Flanders, Hainaut, and Lux- 
emburg. Conde was pardoned ; and Louis agreed to marry 
the daughter of Philip (Maria Theresa), who renounced all 
claim to the Spanish succession. 

Death of Mazarin (1661). — Mazarin had now secured 
the great results of Richelieu's policy. Like his predecessor, 
however, the hour of triumph found him approaching the 




CARDINAL MAZARIN. 



peace. 



* So called because the Spaniards were attacked by Turenne while they were 
entangled in the dunes or sand-hills. The incapacity and obstinacy of the Spaniards 
on this occasion greatly irritated Conde. " Were you ever in a battle ? " he asked 
of the young Duke of Gloucester, son of Charles I., who had joined him as a volun- 
teer. " No, 1 ' responded the prince. " Eh, Men / '■' returned Conde, " in half an hour 
you will sec how one is lost. 1 ' 



.1661.] LOUIS XIV. 1G1 

grave. Rapacious, frivolous, indolent, and prodigal, bis in- 
ternal administration had been deplorable. The finances 
had fallen to the level from which Sully raised them. Com- 
merce and agriculture had been neglected, and the navy was 
nearly extinct. 

II. Louis Reigns for Himself (1661-1683)—" To whom 
shall I hereafter refer questions of state ? " asked the presi- 
dent of the assembly of clergy, the day after Mazarin's death.* 
" To me" was the king's significant reply. Louis had the 
most extravagant ideas of the royal prerogative, and claimed 
to possess absolute right over the life and property of his 
subjects. His motto was: "The state is myself. 5 ' The 
times were favorable for his appearance. Richelieu had 
crushed the nobles, and Mazarin the Parliament, France 
was depleted by foreign and civil wars. The people longed 
for rest, and to secure it were willing to be ruled by an 
autocrat. 

Ministry of Colbert. — Colbert was soon given control 
of the finances. From that moment order replaced chaos. 
Mainly by frugality and system he trebled the total revenues 
of the country. The laces of Chantilly, the glasses of Cher- 
burg, the cloths of Louviers, the carpets of La Savonnerie, 

* Mazarin had already detected the strength of the king's character. " There is in 
him," he said, " stuff enough for four kings and one honest man.' 1 — When Louis 
was only eight years old, his love of wrestling greatly disturbed Laporte, his attend- 
ant. Once he was struggling with his cousin, the Count of Artois ; all commands 
and entreaties that they would cease were fruitless. Laporte gravely put on his hat 
and sat down. Louis noticed it at once, and, tearing himself away from his cousin's 
arms, he quickly demanded : " How can you allow yourself to cover your head in 
my presence, and to sit down without my permission?" "Pardon, sire, replied 
Laporte, as he arose and took off his hat, " I did not think that a king was in the 
room." This answer made a great impression upon the hoy. He assumed a digni- 
fied air, and turned to his playmate with the proud words : "Monsieur, my cousin, 
you are at liberty to depart."— His imperious will was soon manifest. As early as 
1655. when Parliament attempted to' revise certain taxes which had already been 
registered in a bed of justice, he .presented himself in their chamber, riding-whip in 
hand, and ordered the assembly to disperse, adding that hereafter they should mind 
their proper duties and not interfere with his ordinances. 



162 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 



[1667. 



the silks of Lyons, and the Gobelin tapestry of Paris, bear 
witness to his protection. Colonies were founded; manufac- 
tures established; the capital was paved, policed, and lighted; 
French merchant-vessels swarmed the sea; and the navy 

soon numbered one hundred 
ships. — Under the guidance 
of Vauban (aw), the great 
engineer, a triple line of 
fortresses was erected on the 
frontiers of the east and 
north. The canal of Lan- 
guedoc united the sea with 
the ocean. Dunkirk was 
purchased from England. — 
Under Louvois (vwa), the 
minister of war, the troops 
were disciplined and uni- 
formed, magazines were pre- 
pared, and the army received 
an organization and equip- 
ment which made it at once 
the admiration and the dread 
of Europe. Military life be- 
came a profession in which 
merit was sure to rise, and valor could supply the place of 
birth and fortune. 

War of Flanders (1667-8).— On the death of his father- 
in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, Louis, in the name of his queen, 
Maria Theresa, set up a claim to Flanders. War was de- 
clared. In a month Turenne conquered Flanders almost 
without a blow. Conde took Franche-Comte even more 
quickly. Holland, England, and Sweden, alarmed by these 
rapid conquests, formed a Triple Alliance to mediate peace. 




COLBERT. 



1672.] LOUIS XIV. 163 

By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louis restored Franche- 
Comte. 

Invasion of Holland (1672-3). — Louis's wounded pride 
could not forgive a nation which had presumed to set bounds 
to his conquests. Strengthened by an alliance with Eng- 
land,* he entered Holland with a magnificent army. With 
him were Conde. Turenne, Louvois, Luxemburg, Vauban, and 
Martinet, f Louis, advancing to within four leagues of Amster- 
dam, demanded outrageous terms of peace. The Prince of 
Orange, being made dictator, though a young man of twenty- 
two, who had never seen battle or siege, exerted all his genius 
for the salvation of his country. Despair gave the nation a 
heroic courage. The dykes were cut and the land inun- 
dated. "Better," said they, "let the sea drown our farms 
than the French destroy our liberties." The Dutch admiral, 
De Buyter, repeatedly fought the combined fleets of England 
and France, and thus kept the coasts safe from their attacks. 
William aroused all Europe in favor of little Holland and 
with dread of the ambition of Louis. The Empire, Spain, and 
several German princes, leagued with the Dutch. Charles 
II. was forced to make peace by an indignant Parliament. 

War of the First Coalition (1673-8).— The invasion 
of Holland had now brought on an European war. Louis 
seemed to rejoice in the opportunity this gave him to show 
his superiority. The French frontier swarmed with soldiers. 
Franche-Comte was conquered in six weeks. Turenne crossed 
the Rhine, defeated the Imperialists at Sintzheim (1674), forced 
them back of the Neckar, and, returning, barbarously ravaged 

* Charles II., notwithstanding his recent policy, hated the Dutch no less than 
Lonis. Moreover, he was in distress for money. His heautiful sister, Henrietta, 
was Duchess of Orleans. Louis sent her to England on a secret mission, and with 
her one of the most fascinating ladies of the court (afterward the dissolute Duchess 
of Portsmouth), that they might use their influence for him. 

t General Martinet attended to the order of march and details of the drill. His 
name is still the word for a punctiliousness in discipline unknown hefore his time. 



164 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 



[1674. 



the Palatinate. The Imperialists, in turn, passed the Ehine 
with 70,000 men, and occupied Alsace. They thought the 
campaign finished ; with Turenne it was only begun. With 
20,000 men he marched over the Vosges mountains in the 
depth of winter, fell suddenly on the astonished enemy, who 

supposed him fifty leagues 
-r^=- g; ^ away, routed their forces in 

repeated engagements, and 
drove them back beyond the 
Ehine. 

Last Campaign of Tu- 
renne and Conde. — The 
emperor now sent against 
Turenne the famous Mon- 
tecuculi. The two generals 
tested each other in a series 
of brilliant manoeuvres, and 
at length were on the point 
of joining battle. Turenne 
went to the front to make 
the final arrangements when 
he was struck by a cannon- 
ball and instantly killed.* 
Louis, as a mark of respect, 
caused the body of his great general to be buried in the tomb 
of the French kings in the ancient church of St. Denis. f 

* The same ball carried off" the arm of St. Hiliare, commaucler of the artillery. " It 
is not to me," said the wounded general to his weeping son, who bent over him, 
u but to that great man our tears are due/''— The news of Turenne's death threw 
France into consternation and grief. " Yesterday," writes Madame de Sevigne, " all 
were in tears in the streets— every other business was suspended. The king is 
greatly afflicted; the whole people are in trouble and emotion." 

t Prior to this Du Guesclin was the only French subject whose remains were thus 
honored. Next to Notre Dame, St. Denis is considered the finest, as it is one of the 
most ancient, churches in France. Founded by St, Genevieve in the fifth century, it 
was successively enlarged and improved byDagobert in the seventh, Charlemagne in 
the eighth, and St. Louis in the thirteenth centuries. 




-?vJ^\, 



ST. DENIS. 



1674.] LOUIS XIV. 165 

Meanwhile Conde, opposed to the Prince of Orange in Flan- 
ders, had also fought his last battle. At Seneffe (1674) he 
beat the allied forces ; but William, with that self-possession 
which always made him more dangerous in defeat than 
in victory, took a new position, and held it against every 
attack. The successors of Turenne, being unable to oppose 
any resistance to Montecuculi, Conde was called thither to 
check this great captain. Conde having accomplished this 
by some strategic moves, feeling the weight of years, re- 
tired to private life. Montecuculi also relinquished his 
command, saying that a man who had had the honor to 
oppose Turenne and Conde should not risk his laurels 
against tyros. 

Treaty of Nimeguen (1678-9). — Two brilliant cam- 
paigns ensued. The French fleet gained the command of 
the Mediterranean. Luxemburg, by his successes, rivalled 
the victor of Rocroi. With the king, he captured Valen- 
ciennes by a charge of musketeers in broad daylight. With 
Monsieur, Duke of Orleans, he defeated the Prince of Orange 
at Oassel (1677). Louis found himself the arbitrator of Eu- 
rope. The war was begun against Holland, but Spain paid 
its cost, being obliged to abandon to France Franche-Comte, 
and several places of great strength on the frontiers of 
Flanders. 

Conquests in Time of Peace. — To the advantages 
afforded by this treaty Louis added others gained by fraud. 
Courts were established to interpret its provisions. His 
armies enforced their decisions as in time of war. No less 
than twenty important cities, among wdiich were Strasburg, 
Luxemburg, and Saarbruck, were thus wrested from neigh- 
boring princes. 

The "Grand Monarque" was now at the height of his 
glory. The subservient magistrates of Paris voted him the 



166 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 



[1G78. 



title of '• The Great," and erected in honor of his victories 
the magnificent arches of Porte St. Denis and St. Martin, 
which still ornament the boulevards of Paris. Everywhere 
his arms triumphed. The French fleet drove the pirates 
from the Mediterranean, bombarded Algiers and Tripoli, and 
humiliated Genoa. One hundred vessels of the line lay in 

the ports of Tou- 
lon, Brest, Havre, 
and Dunkirk; one 
hundred fortresses, 
monuments of the 
skill of Vauban, 
covered the front- 
iers; and an army 
of 140,000 men, 
under Luxem- 
burg, Catinat,Ven- 
dome, and Villars, 
waited the word to 
move. Louis was 
jealous to excess, 
and the slightest affront was the prelude to an invasion, and 
a breacli of etiquette the precursor to a blockade.* His 
subjects, dazzled by the brilliancy of his conquests and the 
magnificent prosperity of his reign, gave up the few political 
rights they had so far retained. 

The "Age of Louis XIV." forms a brilliant epoch in 
literature and art. Never had so many great men clustered 

* The Spanish ambassador at London having taken precedence of the French 
envoy, Louis threatened war against his father-in-law, Philip. That monarch made 
an unqualified submission, and his ambassador at Paris, in full court, renounced his 
sovereign's claim to equality.— The Corsican guard of the Pope, at Eome, insulted 
the French ambassador. Innocent X. was forced to offer an apology, dismiss the 
guard, and erect an obelisk, with an inscription declaring the offence and its punish- 
ment. 




PORT ST. DENIS. 



1643-1715.] LOUIS XIV. 167 

about a throne. Poorly educated * and narrow-minded him- 
self, Louis had the good sense to retain them by rewards, 
while he appropriated their glory as his own. The fame of 
their scientific discoveries and literary achievements rivaled 
the triumphs of his generals. The sermons of Bourdaloue, 
Bossuet, Fenelon, and Massillon ; the poetry of Moliere, Cor- 
neille, Racine, and La Fontaine ; the writings of Pascal and 
Descartes; the paintings of Le Brun, Poussin, and Claude 
Lorraine ; the sculpture of Puget and Giraudon ; the archi- 
tectural creations of Mansard and Perrault, have immortal- 
ized the age. The wisest philosophers and statesmen, the 
most graceful writers and poets, all were drawn into the 
vortex of obedience and flattery. Then it was that French 
tastes, thought, and language were impressed on foreign na- 
tions, and all Europe took a Parisian tinge. 

Adulation of the Court. — Louis's courtiers prostrated 
themselves at his feet like the slaves of some Oriental despot. 
To be allowed to accompany him in his walks, to carry his 
cane or sword, to hold a taper during his toilette, to draw on 
the royal shoes, or even to stand and watch the robing of the 
monarch, w T ere honors to live and die for. This servility was 
necessary to secure the favor of the king. It was only by the 
grossest flattery, and by ascribing their success to him alone, 
that his ministers retained their places. Colbert, alarmed at 
the extravagant expenses of the court, ventured to urge econ- 
omy. From that hour he was in disgrace, and was treated 
with such harshness and neglect that at last he died (1683), 
worn out by hard service and the ingratitude of his king.f 

* This "Grand Monarque" could hardly read or write, much less spell. Of the 
history of his own country or the laws of political economy he was utterly ignorant. 

t When he was on his death-bed, Louis wrote him a letter. Expecting nothing 
but fresh blame and sneers, he declined to open it, exclaiming, as did Wolsey of 
Henry VIII. : "Had I done one-tenth for God that I have for the king, I might long 
since have worked out my salvation ; but now what awaits me ? "—He left a fortune 
which he had honestly gathered, but the people, who remembered Mazarin and Fou- 



168 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1G83. 

III. Decline of Louis XIV.— Eejecting Colbert's ad- 
vice, Louis had already persecuted the Huguenots, wasted 
the public wealth in gigantic structures at Versailles,* and 
incurred a prodigal expense in the last war. His chief advi- 
sers were Madame de Maintenon,f and the cold and selfish 
Louvois. 

The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685).— 
The privileges enjoyed by the Huguenots under the edict of 
Nantes were now revoked ; their ministers ordered to leave 
France ; their schools closed, and their form of worship for- 
bidden. They were excluded from the liberal professions, 
from the universities, and from various branches of trade 
and industry. Squadrons of cavalry were quartered in sus- 
pected houses. By these " dragonades," as they were termed, 
the people were driven to despair. Numbers were loaded 
with chains, imprisoned in dungeons, broken on the wheel, 
or condemned to the gibbet. Although emigration was for- 
bidden under severe penalties, the roads leading from France 
streamed with fugitives, escaping in every conceivable dis- 

quet (former minister of finance), believed otherwise, and he was buried by night, 
to save his remains from the fury of the mob. 

* To obtain sufficient room for the grounds to this palace, an area of sixty miles in 
circumference was graded. Water was supplied by pipes from the Seine, and later 
the river Eure was turned from its bed, and brought hither, a distance of thirty 
leagues. While the wretched peasants were groaning in misery and nearly starving 
in their cheerless cots, Louis expended upon this useless estate over 400,000,000 
francs. To this clay it is the wonder of the traveler. The long, shaded avenues are 
lined with graceful statuary, and beautiful grottos and fountains furnish a constant 
surprise. The side of the palace which fronts the gardens is over a quarter of a mile 
in length. The interior is grand beyond description, and its picture-galleries contain 
miles of valuable works of art. 

t Louis's private life had been shamelessly immoral, and his example had told 
grievously on the whole nation. Even the language was affected, and the very term 
which had hitherto implied virtuous integrity {honnete homme) came to mean nothing 
better than an unpolished, unsuspicious fool. It has been said of him that "his 
long reign may be divided into three periods, corresponding with the characteristics 
of the three women who successively possessed all the love he could spare from him- 
self. He was gentle, humane, and domestic with Mademoiselle La Valliere ; arrogant, 
heartless, and warlike with Madame de Montespan ; e'elfish, bigoted, and cruel with 
Madame de Maintenon." The last was a woman of fine talents and engaging manners, 
but cold and ambitious. On the death of the queen, in 1683, Louis privately married her. 



1685.] LOUIS XI v. 169 

guise. Before the close of the century 200,000 at least had 
left, many of whom were skilled artisans, carrying with them 
the- industries and arts hitherto known only to France. Large 
numbers enlisted in foreign armies, and in the next war 
Louis had to meet on every field brave soldiers whom he had 
driven into the ranks of the enemy. More than all else, it 
enabled Louis's bitter enemy, the vigilant William Prince of 
Orange, now king of England,* to organize a coalition — the 
famous League of Augsburg (1686) — to. resist the ambition 
of the French king. 

War of the Second Coalition f (1688-97).— Louis, 
anxious to strike the first blow, sent an army of 80,000 men, 
under the Dauphin, into Germany. Mayence, Heidelberg, 
Treves, Spires, and many other places were taken. Unable 
to hold his conquests, Louis, at the instigation of Louvois, 
gave orders to again devastate the Palatinate (1689). Forty 
cities and many villages were destroyed. Houses were blown 
up; vineyards and orchards cut down. Even the cemeteries 
were profaned, and the ashes of the dead scattered to the 
wind. One hundred thousand homeless peasants wandered 
to and fro, calling for vengeance. A cry of execration went 
up from the civilized world. England, Holland, Germany, 
Spain, Sweden, the Electors of Bavaria and Saxony, and the 
Count Palatinate, joined the " Grand Alliance" against Louis. 
The allies took the field, drove the French from the line of 
the Sambre, and recaptured the Palatinate. Luxemburg was 
now sent into Holland. This illustrious successor of Conde 
and Turehne conquered the allies at Fleurus (1690), cap- 
tured the strong fortresses of Mons and Namur, in spite of 
King "William's exertions to save them, and defeated him at 

* James II., the dethroned king of England, was Louis's ally, and came to France, 
where his cause was espoused against William with knightly courtesy. 

t This war in America, hetween the English and the French, is known as King 
William's War. (See Brief Hist, J7. £„ p, 77.) 
8 




SIGNATURE OF LOUIS XIV. 



170 THE ABSOLUTE MOIAECHI. [1663. 

the great battles of Steinkirk* (1692), and Necrioinden 
(1693). Besides these noted victories, the French, under 
Catinat (cii-te-na), had beaten the forces of the Duke of 
Savoy in Piedmont ; and on sea the gallant Tourville had 
retrieved the disaster of La Hogue. 

Misfortunes. — Meanwhile, however, Prince Eugene, f 
coming to the aid of tl\a Duke of Savoy, bad not only driven 
the French across the Alps, but had invaded Provence, and 

taken revenge for the devas- 
tation of the Palatinate. The 
Dutch had captured Pondi- 
cherry, a colony founded in 
Hindoostan by Colbert, and 
ruined French commerce in 
the Indies. The English had destroyed their plantations in 
St. Domingo, had bombarded Havre, Calais, and Dunkirk, and 
laid Dieppe in ashes. "William's stubborn resistance in Hol- 
land prevented any marked advantage from the victories of 
Luxemburg. And now this great commander % was no more. 
Villeroi (vel-rwa), his successor, unable to check William, 

* Luxemburg was here taken by surprise. To gain time, the Duke of Orleans^ 
then a lad of fifteen— charged at the head of the king's household. Young princes of 
the blood, grandsons of the great Conde and of Henry IV., and the highest nobles of 
the court, desperately held the ground till Luxemburg could establish his lines. The 
people, carried away by enthusiasm for these gallant youths, poured flowers and 
crowns upon them as they returned to Paris. The road was lined with congratu- 
lating and shouting crowds. The young nobles, hurrying into battle, had hastily 
thrown on the fashionable lace cravats upon whose arrangement they were wont to 
bestow much pains. Henceforth the '■'•negligee'''' style was universal. Ornaments 
were manufactured upon this model, so that not only Steinkirk cravats, but Stein- 
kirk watch-chains, seals, necklaces, and bracelets were the popular rage. 

t This prince belonged, through his father, to the house of Savoy ; his mother was 
a niece of Mazarin. Louis had a personal dislike for him, and refused him either a 
regiment or an abbey, saying: "Eugene is too girl-like for a soldier, and too gallant 
for a churchman." Eugene quitted France, but, full of indignation, silenlly vowed to 
return. 

X Luxemburg was styled the upholsterer of Notre-Dame, from the number of cap- 
tured flags he sent to be hung as trophies in that cathedral. "Would to God, 11 said 
he, on his death-bed, " that I could offer Him, instead of so many useless laurels, the 
merit of a cup of water given to the poor in His name,'" 



1697.] LOUIS XIV. 171 

allowed him to retake Namur. It was the first of Louis's 
conquests taken from him by force. Louvois, like Colbert, 
had died in disgrace, and no one had been found to fill his 
place. France was worn out by its nine years struggle. * 

Peace of Ryswick (1697). — Louis was forced to propose 
peace ; to acknowledge William king of England ; to give up 
nearly all his new conquests, and level the frontier fortifica- 
tions on which he had spent so much. The seventeenth 
century closed in quiet. 

The Spanish Succession. — Another reason influenced 
Louis in making the treaty of Kyswick. The feeble Charles 
II., king of Spain, was evidently near his end, and his rich 
inheritance was a matter of fierce contention. There were 
two heirs : Philip, Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin, 
and the Archduke Charles, son of the emperor. Louis, having 
persuaded Charles II. to make a will leaving his possessions 
to Anjou, accepted the inheritance in behalf of his grand- 
son, and sent him to claim his throne. Europe, however, 
was so disinclined to a new struggle that it might have been 
arrested had not Louis provoked it, (1) by giving Philip let- 
ters preserving his rights to the crown of France; (2) by 
sending troops (1701) to occupy the frontier fortresses of the 
Netherlands, then held by the Dutch ; and (3) by recognizing 
the Pretender, son of the deposed James II., as the lawful 
king of England. The Third Coalition was promptly formed 
to check the power of France. It comprised England, the 
Empire, Holland, Prussia, and the Elector Palatine. 



* The general distress and misery which marked the close of the seventeenth cen- 
tury surpassed all modern record. " The people were perishing to the sound of 
Te Deumsy Even the Bordeaux vine-dressers— the best-paid laborers in France- 
could only earn eight cents a day! "Their usual food was rye and water, and only 
on very rare occasions could they buy some refuse from the butcher's shop." Most 
distressed of all were the families on the frontier, who, though never affording such 
a luxury as meat on their own table, were yet obliged to furnish three meals of meat 
each day to the troopers which were billeted upon them. 



172 HISTORY OF FRANCE. [1701. 

War of the Spanish Succession* (1701-13).— Louis 
was now opposed by the greatest generals he had yet met 
in the field — Marlborough and Eugene. They sent his best 
armies flying from Blenheim (1704), Ramillies \ (1707), Oude- 
narde (1708), and Malplaquet% (1709). Eugene overwhelmed 
the French in Italy, and approached the borders of France. 
Gibraltar was wrested from Spain and attached to England. 
The French fleet was burned at Vigo. Louis's conquests 
were gone, and he fought no longer for glory, but only for 
existence. The utmost exertions of Marshals Villars, Bouf- 
flcrs, and Vendome only threw occasional gleams of success 
upon his arms. The resources of the country were dried up, 
and every means of raising money was exhausted. The ter- 
rible winter of 1709 § completed the general misery. The 
king and his nobles sent their plate to the mint. The most 
illustrious families in Versailles lived on oaten bread, Madame 
de Maintenon setting the example. In the provinces the 
people were dying of hunger. Insurrections broke out, and 
the payment of taxes was refused. Louis humbled him- 
self afresh and asked for peace. The allies, as the first 
condition, insisted that he should drive his grandson out of 
Spain. "If I must make war/'' he replied, "I had rather 
fight my enemies than my children.'' As if in response to 
this generous determination, more hopeful news arrived. 
Vendome, by two brilliant victories,! overthrew the forces 

* This is known in American as Queen Anne's War. (See Barnes's Brief Hist. 
U. #, p. 79.) 

t When Villars, the French marshal, appeared at court after this defeat, Louis only- 
remarked to him: " One is not fortunate at our age.' 1 

X The French had just received their rations of Dread, but, half-starving as they 
were, they threw it aside when the signal for battle was given. 

§ The cold was so severe that even the impetuous waters of the Ehone were cov- 
ered with ice. and the olive froze in the ground. Whole families of peasants perished 
in their wretched hovels. Labor and commerce were almost suspended ; all kinds 
of provisions rose to famine prices, and the distress of the poor was beyond descrip- 
tion. 

|| After one of these battles Philip, exhausted with fatigue, sought to sleep. " Sire, 1 



1713.] LOUIS XIV. 173 

of Charles, and reseated Philip on the throne. The em- 
perors death left Charles III. heir to the throne of Austria. 
England was as unwilling that Spain should be joined to 
Austria as to France. A change of ministry at home threw 
Marlborough into disgrace, and that dreaded general was 
recalled. 

Treaty of Utrecht (1713). — A treaty was now negotiated 
by England, but the other powers refused to sign it. Prince 
Eugene, with a superior force, continued the war. Paris 
itself was threatened with a siege. The king w T as in despair. 
Domestic bereavements pressed heavily upon him. His son, 
two grandsons, and one of his great-grandsons, had all died 
within the space of a year, and only a sickly infant,* the 
Duke of Anjou, remained to claim the royal succession. 
Louis, now seventy-four years of age, had resolved to place 
himself at the head of his nobles, and die with them in a 
last effort, when Villars, by his brilliant victories in Flan- 
ders and upon the Rhine, saved the country, and secured the 
long-wished-for peace. It was, however, little honorable to 
France. Gibraltar, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hud- 
son's Bay were given up to England, and Anne was ac- 
knowledged as queen. Holland received a line of fortresses 
in the Pays Bas, to protect her in future against French 
aggression. Philip was recognized as king of Spain, on con- 
dition that the French and Spanish crowns should not be 
united. Louis seemed to have gained his end; his grandson 
w r as on the throne of Spain ; but France was impoverished. 

Death of Louis. — The last days of Louis XIV. were as 
sombre as his first had been brilliant. In spite of disaster, 

said Vend6me to him, spreading beneath a tree the colors taken from the enemy, 
"I will prepare you the most noble bed that ever king reposed upon." 

* This was of great importance, however, in influencing the allies to make peace, 
since if this feeble child should die before the treaty was ratified, Philip of Spain, 
being next heir to the French throne, would after all unite both crowns. 



174 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1715. 

however, he continued to dazzle the eyes of his people with a 
splendor that only gilded the national ruin. Yet he had few 
friends. The atmosphere about his dying bed was only that 
of the coldest indifference. Even Madame de Maintenon left 
him, and her desertion, it is said, affected him more than his 
bodily sufferings. Exhorting his great-grandson, the little 
heir of five years, to shun his errors, to cultivate peace, avoid 
extravagance, and study the welfare of the people, Louis XIV. 
closed his long reign of seventy-two years (1715). 



LOUIS XV. 

1715 to 1743 = 33 Years. 

Regency. — Here, again, was a child-king. Philip, Duke 
of Orleans, nephew of Louis XIV., and nearest prince of the 
blood, was appointed regent by the Parliament of Paris. 
Agreeable and easy in his address, well versed in languages 
and science, he was devoted only to pleasure, and his orgies 
at the Palais Royal were the scandal even of that dissolute 
age. His prime-minister was Dubois, a false, base man, who 
pandered to his vices. The regent's early measures were 
humane. He recalled many who had been proscribed for 
their religious opinions, and opened the doors of the Bastille 
to prisoners whose offences were unknown.* 

* Ever since the reign of Louis XI., it had been the custom of kings to quietly put 
away obnoxious persons. In everything connected with these prisoners the utmost 
secrecy was observed. They were seized at dead of night, fictitious names given to 
them, and all ti'aces of their fate obliterated. Every one has heard of the " Man in 
the Iron Mask," who figured in the time of Louis XIV. His majestic bearing, the 
deference with which his jailers served him, and, above all, the strange mask— of 
velvet, not of iron— which never left his face asleep or awake— all these have been 
the theme for romances ever since Voltaire first gave the fact to the world, fifty years 
after man and mask were buried. (See Steele of Louis XIV., Chap. XXV.) Who be 
was has long been the study of the curious, though most historians now believe him 
to have been only a foreign embassador, who had been false to Louis. 



1718.] 



LOUIS XV 



175 



The Public Debt was now equal to 5,000,000,000 francs, 
the revenues for three years were consumed in advance, and 
the government had no credit. The great question, there- 
fore, was a financial one. A chamber of justice was appoint- 
ed for the examination of accounts. Government contracts 
were destroyed; rents 

and pensions were re- ; 

duced; offices were 
suppressed, and the 
currency was recoin- 
ed.* These, however, 
were temporary expe- 
dients, and only ag- 
gravated the coming 
evil. Meanwhile Philip 
of Spain conspired 
against the regent, 
and hoped, in case of 
the death of the young king, to succeed to the French 
throne, in spite of his renunciation. 

The Quadruple Alliance (1718) of France, England, 
Holland, and the empire, was formed to check this scheme. 
Orleans had now leagued himself with the ancient enemies 
of France. To complete the contrast to the policy of Louis 




THE BASTILLE (1700). 



* By this recoinage the currency was depreciated one-fifth ; those who took a 
thousand pieces of gold or silver to the mint received an amount of coin of the same 
nominal value, but only four-fifths the weight of metal. The chamber of justice, 
which at first exposed the frauds of the farmers-general and loan-contractors, soon 
became a chamber of tyranny. The most atrocious means, including torture, were 
used to obtain convictions. Eesearches were carried back twenty-seven years, and 
a person needed only to be rich to insure a prosecution. Servants were permitted to 
testify against their masters, and one-tenth of all concealed effects belonging to the 
guilty was promised to the informer. The Bastille soon overflowed with prisoners. 
Some were punished with death ; many committed suicide. Courtiers bargained for 
their influence in remitting fines, and so came in for the chief share in the spoils. 
"The court of France,'" says Bonnechose, "was no longer anything but the scan- 
dalous market of a kingdom given over to pillage." 



176 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1718. 

XI V., he sent the Duke of Berwick — son of James II. — into 
Spain with a French army, acting in concert with an English 
squadron, to overthrow Philip V. ; for whose enthronement 
French soldiers had so stoutly fought, and who bore' upon 
his banner the lilies of France. This war, which confirmed 
the power of Austria in Italy, established the naval supremacy 
of England, and weakened a Bourbon house, the only natural 
ally of France, and multiplied the distresses of the kingdom. 
After considerable losses, Philip of Spain made peace, Sicily 
was given to the empire, and the regent agreed to demolish 
the important fortifications of Dunkirk. 

The Mississippi Scheme. — The regent was now led to 
embrace the plan of Law, a shrewd Scotch adventurer and 
gambler, who proposed to establish a royal bank, to issue 
paper money based on the revenues of the government, and 
with the profits to pay oif the public debt. Dazzled by the 
rapid success of this scheme, Law afterward organized the 
West India Company, to colonize and trade in Louisiana. 
(See Brief Hist. U. 8., p. 202.) The public were stimu- 
lated by marvellous stories of gold and silver to be found 
on the banks of the Mississippi. New privileges were 
granted to the company. All classes began to speculate in 
the stock. The shares rose in value, often hour by hour, so 
that they reached thirty or forty times their cost. Law's 
house was besieged by those who were eager to purchase. 
Enormous fortunes were made. The regent, sharing in the 
universal intoxication, would see nothing but greater success 
in greater ventures, and paper money was issued to the 
amount of nearly 2,000,000,000 francs, or several times the 
coin of the realm. Soon the inevitable reaction drew near. 
The ships laden with gold never cajne to harbor. Public 
confidence became shaken, and a run was made on the bank. 
The regent now issued the most arbitrary laws. ISTo one was to 



1723.] LOUIS XV. 177 

have in his possession over five hundred francs cash. Pay- 
ments in specie of over one hundred francs were forbidden. 
Finally a regulation was made to let the shares down, step 
by step, to their par value ; but as panics cannot be regu- 
lated by law, the shares tumbled to nothing. The bubble 



N.° I A ft <ly> ^ mt ^ res Toununs* 



L 



My*-?/ 



A Banq.ue promet payer au Porteur a viie Cent livres Toumofs 
en Eipeces d'Argent, valeur receiie. A Paris Ie premier Janvier mil 



Bourgeois. 





^wftejtT^s. 



PAPER MONEY OF LAW S ROYAL BANK. 



burst ; fortunes disappeared ; Law fled as a fugitive, and his 
famous scheme was at an end. The public debt was not 
paid but increased ; while society was imbued with a spirit 
of gambling and intrigue, and a restlessness fruitful of peril. 

Ministry of Bourbon (1723-6). — Louis, now thirteen 
years old, being declared of age, Orleans retired from the 
regency. He followed Dubois in the prime ministry, but 
both died within the year from the effects of their debauch- 
eries. The Duke of Bourbon, who had all the depravity of 
Orleans,, with none of his talents, now succeeded to the office. 
The choice of a wife for the boy-king was the chief event of 
his ministry. The little Spanish princess, who was being 
educated at Paris as future queen, was sent back to Madrid 
without even the courtesy of a polite excuse, and Marie 
Leczinski, daughter of Stanislaus, ex-king of Poland, was 
selected as the royal bride. Enraged at this gross insult, 



178 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1726-36. 



Philip V. made friends with Charles VI. of Austria against 
France and England, who, in turn, allied themselves with 
Prussia. Everything foreboded another European war. For- 
tunately the wretched administration of Bourbon and his 
creatures caused his dismissal, and Cardinal Eleury, the 
king's preceptor and adviser, was made minister of state. 

Ministry of Fleury 
(1726). — For seventeen 
years this simple, quiet, 
conscientious priest 
sought to preserve peace, 
that France might re- 
pair her enormous losses 
and enrich herself by 
commerce. The taxes 
were reduced; the reve- 
nues augmented, and 
credit was re-established. 
In spite of all his exer- 
tions, however, he was 
dragged into three wars, 
which his habits of economy rendered him incapable of 
conducting with energy. 

The War for the Succession of Poland (1733-5) had 
for its object the restoration of the Polish crown to Stanis- 
laus. On the death of Augustus, whom Eussia had placed 
on the throne of Poland, Stanislaus received the votes of 
60,000 Poles, and was proclaimed king. Eussia, Austria, and 
Denmark opposed his election to the throne. Fleury could 
but defend his king's father-in-law, but, with culpable par- 
simony, sent only 1,500 men to his assistance. The Eussian 
army marched on Warsaw. The French were captured. 
Stanislaus fled. His rival, Angus tus III., was crowned at 




f0fpvc 

CARDINAL FLEURY. 



1741.] LOUIS XV. 179 

Cracow. The courts of Paris, Madrid, and Turin now com- 
bined against that of Vienna, and the wars of Louis XIV. 
were resumed on the same old ground. The veteran Villars 
reappeared on the field of battle in Italy, while the Duke of 
Berwick * was opposed to Prince Eugene on the Ehine. The 
French carried all before them. The Spanish army, at the 
same time, invaded South Italy, and Don Carlos, son of 
Philip V. of Spain, became king of the two Sicilies. His 
position was confirmed by the treaty of Vienna (1738), and 
thus an additional crown was secured to the Bourbon house. 
Stanislaus, in lieu of Poland, received the Duchy of Lorraine, 
which, on his death, was to revert to Louis XV. ; and the 
joint powers agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction, as it was 
termed, which secured the succession of the empire to Maria 
Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. 

War for the Succession of Austriaf (1741-8). — Two 
years elapsed. The emperor died, and Maria Theresa as- 
cended the throne. Despite their solemn guarantee, all the 
great powers, except England, united to rob her of her inher- 
itance. Frederick, king of Prussia, overran Silesia. J The 
Elector of Saxony invaded Bohemia. France supported the 
claim of the Elector of Bavaria to the imperial crown, and a 
French and Bavarian army pushed within a few leagues of 
Vienna. Fleeing to the Diet of Hungary, the queen com- 
mended to them her infant son. The brave Magyar nobles, 
drawing their sabres, shouted : K We will die for our king, 

* At the siege of Philipsburg, Berwick was killed by a cannon-ball. On hearing of 
his death. Villars remarked : " That man was always lucky ; " and Eugene, with the 
fame soldierly spirit, exclaimed: "For the first time in my life I am jealous." 
Within a week afterward Villars died at Turin, in the same room where he was born 
eighty-five years before. 

t The reflex of this struggle was felt, in America, and is known as King George 1 s 
War. (See Brief Hist. U. 8'., p. 80.) 

t The magnificent strategy by which Frederick the Great resisted Europe in arms, 
and established the prestige of Prussia, is best shown in connection with the History 
of Germany, and is not attempted in the description of this or the Seven Years War. 



180 



THE ABSOLUTE MOKAECHY. 



[1743. 



Maria Theresa." A powerful army was formed in her de- 
fence. Sardinia declared for the queen. Frederick treated 
with her for Silesia. The French, left single-handed to bear 
the brunt of the battle, were blockaded in Prague, and at 
last, by disastrous flight, only 12,000 out of 60,000 escaped to 
the frontier. King George II. had 
now taken the field with the Euglish 
and Hanoverian troops, and the same 
year (1743) defeated the French, 
under Marshal de Noailles, at Det- 
tingen. 

Victories of Marshal Saxe. 
— In 1744 Louis placed himself at 
the head of his army.* Under him 
was Maurice of Saxony, known in 
history as Marshal Saxe. This fa- 
mous general restored the honor of 
the French arms by the brilliant 
victories of Fontenoy \ (1745), Rau- 




MARSHAL SAXE. 



* Louis was taken violently ill at Metz at the close of this campaign. To the sui'- 
prise of all he recovered. The people, who had been touched by the story of his 
repentance, were overjoyed, and gave him the name of Well-Beloved. The cold- 
hearted king, who had already determined to disgrace the good bishop by whose 
entreaties he had renounced his pet sins at the gate of death, was astonished at the 
devotion of his subjects, and exclaimed : "What have I done that they should love 
me so much ? " 

t The courtesies exchanged between the opposing generals in this contest are 
memorable. Arrived at fifty paces from our line, says Duruy, the English officers 
removed their caps in salute to us. Our officers of the guard returned the compli- 
ment. Milord Hay cried : " Gentlemen of the French Guard, it is for you to begin— 
fire ! " The Count d'Auteroche responded in a loud voice : " Gentlemen, we never 
fire first ; it is for you to begin." The next response was from the English in a 
rolling fire, that brought clown twenty-three officers and three hundred and eighty 
soldiers.— Carlyle rather discredits the "courtesy" on this occasion, and says it was 
braggadocio and "chaffing." — On his return to Paris, after this campaign, Louis was 
hailed with great enthusiasm as a conqueror. He seems to have been as ready as 
Louis XIV. to appropriate to himself the success of r his generals, as one can but feel, 
when standing by the magnificent tomb of Marshal Saxe, in the church of St. Thomas, 
Strasbourg, whereon we read, after the illustrious titles of this truly great general : 
"Louis XV. the author and witness of his victories, caused this monument to bo 
srected," etc. 



1746.] LOUIS XV. 181 

coux (1746), and Lawfelt (1717). Nearly all the Austrian 
Netherlands lay at the feet of the conqueror. 

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).— Meanwhile the ob- 
ject for which France commenced the war had been decided. 
On the death of the Elector of Bavaria (1745), his son submit- 
ted to Maria Theresa, and her husband Francis was elected 
emperor. Since .then France had fought only to secure an 
honorable peace. The capture of the fortress of Maestrecht 
was followed by a suspension of hostilities. It was expected 
that, after the signal successes of Marshal Saxe, Louis would 
demand an accession of territory ; but he declared that he 
treated like a prince, not like a merchant. By the peace of 
Aix-la-Ohapelle, France restored all her conquests, and did 
not retain a foot of land to show for seven years of unjust 
and exhausting war. The debt was increased, and the navy 
was almost annihilated. 

Royal Favorites. — After the death of Cardinal Fleury 
(1743), Louis, affecting the example of Louis XIV., appointed 
no prime minister. The real ruler of public affairs, however, 
was the king's favorite. For twenty years Madame de Pom- 
padour, a woman of low birth but great accomplishments, 
was the most powerful person in France. Generals, minis- 
ters, and ambassadors transacted business in her boudoir. 
The entire patronage of the government was in her hands. 
Even the generals of the army were selected from her court- 
iers, and to win her favor was a surer passport to promotion 
than to gain a battle. She was succeeded after her death by 
the Countess Du Barri, who was still more infamous and 
lavish of the public money. Becent investigations show that 
$100,000,000 of the national debt was incurred for expenses 
too ignominious to bear the light. 

The Seven Years War. — The boundaries between the 
French and English possessions in North America being 



182 THE ABSOLUTE MOIAKCHY. [1754-63. 

poorly defined, a contest, known to us as the French and 
Indian War, broke out in 1754 {Brief Hist U. S., p. 81), 
though there was no formal declaration for two years afteiv 
ward. All Europe was soon fired. Maria Theresa made an 
attempt to recover Silesia, with the help of Russia, Saxony, 
Poland, and Sweden. Louis, under the influence of Madame 
Pompadour,* deserted his natural allies and declared for 
Austria. England alone joined with Prussia. The French 
were at first successful. Minorca was captured by a brilliant 
dash, and the Hanoverian army, under the Duke of Cumber- 
land, at Closter-Seven was forced to capitulate (1757). But 
disasters soon thickened fast on sea and land. There were 
disgraceful defeats at Rosbach (1757), Crevelt (1758), and 
Minden (1759). Preparations were made to invade England, 
but one squadron was overthrown by the British off Cape 
Lagos, another off Belle Isle, and a descent made on Ireland 
failed ignominiously. In America, Louisburg was taken and 
Cape Breton lost. Wolfe {Brief Hist. U. 8., p. 87) captured 
Quebec, and Canada fell. In Africa, Senegal was wrested 
from France. In Asia, Lord Clive captured Pondicherry, and 
gave a death-blow to French rule in the East, Spain, be- 
coming involved in the war by virtue of the " Family Com- 
pact," f lost many of her colonies in the Philippine Islands 
and the West Indies. 

Peace of Paris (1763.)— The accession of Peter III.— 
who was a warm admirer of Frederick the Great — to the 
throne of Russia, decided the issue of the war. France ceded 

* Maria Theresa wrote Madame Pompadour a cajoling letter, styling her " my very 
clear friend," " my cousin," etc. This skilful manoeuvre decided the alliance. The 
wit of one woman and the vanity of another had set aside an inveterate enmity of 
two countries. 

t This famous treaty between the French and Spanish branches of the House of 
Bourbon was negotiated by Choiseul, minister of foreign affairs (1701). They guar- 
anteed their respective thrones, and agreed to aid one another in time of war. A 
medal was struck to commemorate this alliance, and bore the motto: "Pcrpetua 
Consanjruinitatis Fides." 



1773.] 



LOUIS XV. 



183 




MEDAL OF THE FAMILY COMPACT. 



to England Canada with its dependencies, a part of the 
Antilles, Senegal, and nearly all her possessions in India. 
Spain relinquished Florida in exchange for the English con- 
quests, and France gave her the rest of Louisiana. This 
peace, so ignomi- 
nious and humili- 
ating for France,* 
brought on the 
king and court the 
scorn of the na- 
tion. Henceforth 
loyalty was dead. 

Government — Louis, indolent f and indifferent, was yet 
a despot. Frequent conflicts arose between the king and 
the Parliament, which terminated in the suppression of the 
latter. The last shadow of liberty was thus abolished. Louis 
XIV. had destroyed the political importance of the nobles; 
Louis XV. that of the magistracy. What hope was there 
left for the ancient throne and dynasty? The deplorable 
condition of the finances,;); caused by Louis's personal extrav- 
agance and the excesses of a profligate court, was evident to 
all. Ministers followed each other in quick succession, like 
the shifting figures of a magic lantern. Perils lurked on 
every side, but the infatuated courtiers shut their eyes and 



* As part compensation for this loss of territory, Lorraine, en the death of Stanis- 
laus in 1766, reverted to France ; and in 176Sthe island of Corsica gave up its struggle 
for independence, and hecame incorporated with France. Two months afterward 
Napoleon Buonaparte was born. 

t One of his favorite diversions was the spectacle of cruel sports, where birds of 
prey were let loose in vast apartments filled with sparrows, among which they made 
a hideous carnage. His great accomplishment, however, was the art of cutting off 
the top of an egg. When, by a quick evolution of his knife, he neatly removed the 
end of his egg, shouts of "Vive le roi" rewarded the performance. 

$ One of the infamous ways of raising money was by selling orders of imprison- 
ment, often in blank. Any one who bought or received one of these as a gift could 
gratify a revenge at pleasure. St. Florentin, one of Louis's ministers, is said to have 
given away 50,000 of these orders. 



184 THE ABSOLUTE MOHAKCHY. [1774 

ears, and plunged deeper into revelry. Louis foresaw the 
storm, but contented himself that "things would last his 
day;" and Madame Pompadour shouted with him: "After 
us the deluge." He joined with the Abbe Terray,* controller 
of the finances, in a shameful speculation, called a " treaty 
of famine." To all complaints the answer was : " The king 
is master," and the dungeons of the Bastille silenced those 
who were troublesome. 

Death of Louis. — In the midst of accumulating abuses 
and perils, Louis, tired even of his 'pleasures, disgusted with 
everything, and despised by all, died of malignant small-pox. 
Like Louis XIV., domestic losses had left him almost alone. 
His queen, eldest son, and two grandsons, were dead. 

Condition of Society. — The people were overwhelmed with taxes, 
while the nobility and clergy, who owned two thirds of all the land 
in the country, were nearly exempt. The taxes were "farmed out," 
that is, leased for a certain sum to persons who retained all they could 
collect over the specified amount. The unhappy tax-payers were treated 
with relentless severity, in order to swell the profits 'of these farmers- 
general. The Gdhelle was rigidly enforced, each family being com- 
pelled to buy four times per year a certain amount of salt, whether 
needed or not. The peasants were obliged to labor on roads, bridges, 
or other public works, without pay. In some districts every farmer 
had been ruined by these corvees, as they were called. Large tracts of 
land, or capitaineries, regardless of private rights, were declared game- 
preserves, wherein wild boars and deer might roam at pleasure. The 
power given to the noble over the peasants living on his estate was 
absolute. Lest the young game might be disturbed or its flavor im- 
paired, the starving peasant could not weed his little plot of ground 
or suitably enrich it. He must grind his corn at the lord's mill, bake 
his bread in the lord's oven, and press his grapes at the lord's wine- 
press, paying therefor whatever sum the lord might impose. To com- 
plete the picture of rural wretchedness, 150,000 serfs were bought and 
sold with the land on which they were born. Even in the middle 

* He said the people were "only a sponge to be squeezed.' 1 By prohibiting ex- 
portation of grain in one province, he lowered the price, and then bought up the sur- 
plus and sold it in another province where he had raised the price by promoting 
exportation till there was a great scarcity. 



1774] LOUIS XVI. 185 

classes rights of business and profession were a matter of purchase. 
When the royal treasury needed replenishing, a restriction of trade 
was imposed, and licenses issued at a high price for even the com- 
monest callings. The strife between classes had awakened an intense 
hatred. The nobles not only placed their haughty feet on the necks of 
the peasants,*" but spoke contemptuously of the bourgeoisie, the mer- 
chants, traders, artisans, etc., whom they called " Boturiers," a word 
signifying a laborer. In turn the wealthy merchants hated and de- 
spised the spendthrift, dissolute, arrogant hangers-on at court, whose 
ill-gotten revenues were yet far below their own. — The corruption of 
court-life could but infect the lower classes. A general demoralization 
spread through France. A boastful skepticism prevailed, and all 
that is amiable in religion or elevating in morals was made a subject 
.of ridicule. The writings of Rousseau and Voltaire, with their bril- 
liant and fascinating theories of liberty, weakened long-cherished truths 
and taught their readers to mock at Divine revelation. Other able but 
infidel writers contributed to the same end. The people, ignorant of 
the first principles of civil and religious freedom, were intoxicated by 
these sparkling speculations. Meanwhile society drifted on, no one 
knew whither. 

LOUIS XVI. 

1774 to 1789 = 15 Years. 

Louis XVI., at the death of his grandfather,! was twenty 
years old. Unlike so many of his predecessors, he was good 
in heart and pure in life ; but he was awkward in person, 
slouching in gait, shy in manner, squeaking in voice, slow in 
speech, weak in judgment, vacillating in purpose, and totally 
inexperienced in public affairs. His queen, Marie Antoinette, 

* A curious book, published in 1698, called The Titles by which all Sorts of People 
are Qualified, says: "There remain the men and women who should not be given 
any title, either because of their low birth or vulgar trades. These are country-men 
and women, or the lower sort of mechanics. They should be simply called by their 
surname, adding to the woman the article La, at the same time making signs of the 
head or hands expressive of a species of contempt.' 1 '' 

t Louis and Marie Antoinette were in another part of the palace awaiting the 
news. Suddenly a sound, "terrible and absolutely like thunder, ,, was heard. It 
was the crowd of courtiers rushing from the dead sovereign's ante-chamber to salute 
the new king and queen. Overpowered with emotion, by a spontaneous movement 
the young pair threw themselves upon their knees, and, with tears, exclaimed: "O 
God, guide us! Protect its ! We arc too young to govern.'" 



18G 



THE ABSOLUTE MONAECHY 



[1774. 



daughter of Maria Theresa, was a beautiful and innocent but 
thoughtless woman, who unfortunately added to the general 
hatred toward the House of Austria by her dislike of the 
ceremony and artificial manners of the French.* This youth- 
ful pair, whose real virtues might in happier days have won 
the hearts of their subjects, were now confronted by the 
errors, follies, and crimes of a long line of kings. 

Louis's Ministers. — 
Maurepas was appointed 
prime minister, Males- 
herbes (mal-zerb) was 
placed at the head of 
the household, and Tur- 
got (go) was put in charge 
of the finances. The king- 
hoped to find in the first 
a sage whose years would 
make amends for his own 
youth ; he found only a 
superannuated, frivolous courtier. Malesherbes was an upright 
lawyer, who seconded Turgot's views of reform. Turgot was 
a man of pre-eminent abilities, who sought to make all classes 
bear equally the burdens of state. He proposed the abolition of 
the corvee, the gabelle, the duties on the grain trade between 




* Coming from the ease and freedom of her mother's court, the excessive etiquette 
of Versailles was almost insufferable to her. " She was not allowed to put on a 
single article of attire with her own hands, or without the intervention of a series of 
honorary servants, each of whom had a distinct duty. In dressing, one would take 
up a garment and hand it to another, who would put it on the queen. One would 
pour water on her hands ; another would hold the towel wherewith to dry them. 
One had the right to put on the petticoat: another the gown. Gloves, shawls, head- 
dresses, were all subject to fixed 1 ules. Sitting, walking, standing, riding, all had their 
regulations ; and visiting and receiving visits, even so much as speaking to any one, 
were matters of hi^h concern. At table, dishes were presented as if to a divinity— 
the attendants humbly kneeling on a foot-stool." — All these ceremonies were deemed 
vital by the courtiers, to whom a breach of etiquette was a far greater sin than a 
breach of morals. 



1774] LOUIS. XVI. 187 

the different provinces, and various other usages which bore 
heavily on the people. He met with opposition on every 
hand. Those who lost privileges were loud in complaints. 
The clergy and nobility refused to give up their ancient 
rights. The courtiers were furious at his plans of retrench- 
ment. Louis lacked energy to support him against the cabals 
of nobles, clergy, and court, and at last grew weary of the 
great designs which he could not comprehend. Turgot was 
dismissed. With him perished all hope of reform. Males- 
herbes had already retired. 

Neckar, a Swiss banker, succeeded to the post. His in- 
tegrity and brilliant reputation enabled him to easily nego- 
tiate loans. That he might the more consistently reduce the 
salaries of others, he accepted none himself. He accomplished 
many small reforms, and abolished over six hundred super- 
fluous offices, but failed to strike at the root of the evils 
which afflicted France. An official report of the state of the 
finances, which he made public, was the first instance of the 
kind, and produced a profound sensation. It especially 
offended the privileged classes, as it showed the glaring 
exceptions in their favor. Not long after Neckar, conscious 
of growing unpopularity, resigned. 

War of America (1778-1783).— This was the era of our 
War of Independence. Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, and 
Silas Deane had just arrived in Paris, to solicit aid for the 
new republic. Their presence aroused great enthusiasm.* The 
nation was eager to repair the disgrace of the last war, to 



* "Franklin appeared at court in the costume of an American farmer; his long, 
unpowdered hair, round hat, and drab coat, contrasted oddly with the embroidered 
and bespangled dresses, the full-blown and perfumed perukes, of the Versailles 
courtiers. This novelty charmed the dizzy heads of all the French women. Elegant 
fetes were given in honor of the great philosopher and apostle of liberty. At one of 
these the most beautiful of three hundred women affixed on the gray hairs of the 
American philosopher a crown cf laurel, and saluted his cheeks with a kiss." — 
Madame Campan. 



188 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 



[1778-83. 




MEDAL COMMEMORATING THE ALLIANCE OF FRANCE 
AND THE UNITED STATES. 



humble England, and regain French naval superiority. In 
the free and equal government across the ocean the philos- 
ophers saw their ideal. La Fayette renounced the pleasures 
of his delightful home, equipped a vessel, and gave himself to 
the cause of freedom. Louis and his ministers would gladly 
have avoided a conflict with England, but popular sympathy 
drove them on to form a treaty with the United States. In 

1778 a squadron, under 
Count d'Estaing,' ap- 
peared off the coast of 
Rhode Island. The next 
year, reinforced by a 
Spanish fleet, under 
Count de Grasse, D'Es- 
taing captured several of 
the West India Islands, 
and afterward joined General Lincoln in the attack upon 
Savannah. Count de Grasse, with a land force under Count 
Rochambeau, subsequently aided in the capture of the Eng- 
lish army at Yorktown (1781). This victory decided the 
American war. 

Treaty of Versailles (1783). — A change of ministry 
having made the English government desirous of peace, the 
war closed advantageously for France. The independence 
of the United States was acknowledged. France received 
considerable colonial possessions in Africa and the Indies, 
while the article in the treaty of Utrecht concerning Dun- 
kirk was rescinded. This was the last triumph of the old 
monarchy. 

Growing Difficulties of the Government. —The dis- 
tress of the people was constantly increasing, and the state 
of the finances becoming more desperate. Louis had turned 
from Neckar to Fleury, from Fleury to D'Ormesson, but 



1783.] LOUIS XVI. 189 

found no solace in either. At length Calonne was hit upon, 
who appeared to the court like an angel of deliverance. As 
Neckar had preached economy, he taught extravagance. He 
borrowed on all sides, and gave to every one who asked. 
Credit, however, soon failed, and the pleasing dream was 
over. The spendthrift minister had only hastened the inevi- 
table crisis. The conviction was now fast gaining ground that 
the only hope lay in a change of government. Democratic 
doctrines had been fostered by the American war, and the 
successful establishment of a republic across the Atlantic* 
The Palais Royal and the salons of Paris swarmed with 
brilliant men and women, who discussed political abuses and 
their remedies, with dangerous fluency. 

Feebleness of the King. — Meanwhile Louis was with- 
drawn from the national life like the faineant kings of old. 
One day he said to Turgot, on entering his cabinet : " See, I 
am working, too ! " He was preparing a pamphlet on the 
destruction of rabbits in the neighboring fields. He amused 
himself at the locksmith's trade and in drawing geographical 
maps, and passed entire days in hunting, f The queen, young, 
beautiful, and ambitious, had great power over him, but her 
favorite courtiers brought only disaster, while her childish 
follies awakened contempt. J Such was the occupation of the 

* The government seemed strangely insensible to the progress and power of public 
opinion. For example, when aid was sent to our republic, commissions were refused 
to all who could not prove a noble descent for at least one hundred years. 

t It is a significant fact that his retainers were accustomed to say on days when 
his hounds and horses were at home: "His majesty will not do anything to-day." 
In his diary, now preserved in the national archives at Paris, one sees long columns 
of dates,- opposite each of which is the simple word ".fftere," varied only with "The 
king went to hunt, 1 ' or " The king attended church." When Joseph II. (1777) came 
to France, where he studied its arts and industries, he learned with astonishment 
that his brother-in-law, so far from visiting the cities of the provinces, had not even 
seen the Invalides or the military school at Paris. 

% To this period belongs the mysterious affair of the diamond necklace ; the parties 
most interested in which were the Cardinal de Rohan, grand almoner to the king, a 
certain Madame de la Motte, and the queen. A magnificent diamond necklace, valued 
at 1,600,000 francs, had been shown to Marie Antoinette, who exceedingly admired 



190 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 



[1787. 



royal family" on the eve of a revolution. An event, which had 
happened three times already in French history, was again 
about to occur. Another line of kings had nearly spent 
itself. But now there was no Mayor of the Palace, no Count 
of Paris, no Henry IV., to found a new dynasty. 

The Notables and the States -General.— In this 
emergency the notables were assembled (1787). The mem- 
bers, however, refused to 
yield their exclusive privi- 
leges, and so accomplished 
nothing. Calonne now 
gave place to his rival, 
the Archbishop of Brienne. 
New imposts were ordered 
by the government. Par- 
liament resisted their re- 
gistration. A terrible con- 
test arose, which spread 
throughout the kingdom. 
A clamor arose for the 
re-assembling of the long-forgotten States- General, to which 
the government at last yielded. In this crisis Neckar was 
recalled (1788). He endeavored to undo the mistakes of the 
preceding ministers, and to relieve the distress of the com- 




but, refused to buy it, saying : " France needs vessels of war more than jewels." 
Afterward Rohan was persuaded by Madame de la Motte that her majesty, who had 
been his bitter enemy, was ready to take him into her favor if he would procure her 
the necklace unknown to the king. He had an evening interview in the garden at 
Versailles with a woman who strongly resembled and successfully personated the 
queen. Having bought the necklace on credit, as by the queen's order, he delivered 
it to Madame de la Motte. In course of time the jewellers, uneasy at not receiving 
their pay, ventured to send the bill to the queen herself. She indignantly repudiated 
all knowledge of it, and made complaint to the king, A suit was instigated against 
Rohan, as the result of which Maria Antoinette was acquitted of complicity in the 
affair. The people, however, were only too ready to believe anything against " the 
Austrian," and her reputation, already endangered by various imprudencies, suffered 
terribly from the color given to this strange transaction. 



1789.] LOUIS X VI . 191 

mon people. But it was too late to save the country by 
petty measures. The election of members for the states took 
place amid indescribable tumult. By Neckar's advice the 
number of deputies for the tiers-Hat was made equal to that 
of the nobles and clergy combined. Meanwhile Paris was 
flooded with pamphlets* upon the all-absorbing theme. The 
States-General met at Versailles May 5, 1789. It was the last 
day of the monarchy and the first of the revolution. 

Summary. — Sully pays the debts, fills the treasury, and sets the 
hammers ringing in every town and dockyard of France. Henry 
thinks to remodel all Europe, but the dagger of Ravaillac ends his 
scheme. His son, Louis XIII., ascends the throne, with his mother, 
Marie de' Medici, as regent. The favorites, Concini and De Luynes, 
in succession rule the state. Disorder follows. Sully retires. Riche- 
lieu, clear, crafty, pitiless, rises to power. He has his three aims : to 
abase the nobles, the Huguenots, and the House of Austria. He takes 
Rochelle, yet joins the Protestants of Germany in the Thirty Years 
War. He degrades the king, but makes the reign illustrious ; he 
saves France from anarchy, but establishes a despotism. With his 
dying breath he commends Mazarin to his master. Louis soon follows 
his minister. Anne of Austria, left as regent with her little son Louis 
XIV., gives Mazarin her confidence. The fruits of Richelieu's policy 
are reaped by the great Conde at Rocroi, Fribourg, Nordlingen, and 
Lens. The treaty of Westphalia gives Metz, Toul, Verdun, and nearly 
all Alsace to France. The Fronde — the last insurrection of the nobles 
— for six years convulses the land. Mazarin dies, and the king governs 
for himself. Colbert fills his treasury ; Louvois drills and equips his 
troops ; Vauban fortifies his cities ; Conde and Turenne lead his armies. 
Turenne takes French Flanders in three weeks, and Conde Franche- 
Comte in a month. The Triple Alliance bars their progress, and the 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle gives a brief rest. Louis again invades Hol- 
land. The Dutch let in the sea, and the Prince of Orange comes to 
the front. Turenne fights the Germans and Austrians on the Rhine, 
wastes the Palatinate, and dies in battle. The treaty of Nimeguen 
gives Franche-Comte and a part of Flanders to France, and raises the 

* The most celebrated was one in which the Abbe Sieyes thus answered these 
three questions: "Who is the third estate? The nation. What is it? Nothing. 
What ought it to be ? Everything." To the saying of Louis : "The state, it is I,*' 
Sieyes responded : " The state, it is we."— Among the most active in secretly arousing 
the masses was the Duke of Orleans, the richest man in the kingdom, but a notorious 
profligate, who hoped to rise to power on the ruins of the throne. 



192 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1598-1789. 

Grand Honarque to tlie height of his glory. " The Age of Louis XIV." 
gives tone and character to all Europe. In time of peace Louis takes 
Strasbourg. The Edict of Nantes is revoked, and the dragonnades 
drive out of France thousands of her most skilful artisans. The League 
of Augsburg is formed against France. Louis supports the claim of 
James II. to England. Luxemburg wins the battles of Fleurus, 
Steinkirk, and Neerwinden. The Palatinate is again devastated. 
Louis loses his great officers ; his fleet is defeated off La Hogue, and 
he submits to the treaty of Ryswick. The war of the Spanish suc- 
cession comes on, and the Third Coalition is formed against Louis. 
His fortunes forsake him. Boufflers, Villars, and Villeroi are beaten 
by Marlborough and Prince Eugene at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oude- 
narde, and Malplaquet. Smarting under these defeats, Louis gladly 
makes the treaty of Utrecht, and, deserted, lonely, humbled, closes his 
reign of seventy-two years. Philip, Duke of Orleans, becomes regent 
for the child-king, Louis XV. The Quadruple Alliance is formed. The 
Mississippi bubble bursts, and plunges the country in ruin. France 
engages in the war for the succession of Austria, Marshal Saxe gains 
the victories of Fontenoy, Raucaux, and Lawfelt. The peace of Aix- 
la-Chapelle gives a breathing spell to worn-out Europe. The Seven 
Years War begins, and spreads over both continents. AH goes wrong 
with France. Beaten at Rosbach, Crevelt, and Minden, by the treaty 
of Paris she loses Canada, Nova Scotia, Florida, and nearly all her 
Indian possessions. The court, ruled by Pompadour and Du Barry, 
sinks to the last depths of glittering shame. Louis XVI. succeeds his 
grandfather, but the people despise the awkward though amiable king, 
and hate his Austrian bride. France is sunk in debt. The common 
people, loaded with burdens, groan in misery. The clergy and the 
nobles, free from taxation, possess broad lands and abundant privi- 
leges. The court blazes with festivity and luxury. The American 
Revolution sows ideas of liberty throughout the land. Infidel writings 
lead men to scorn all restraints. Turgot devises wise plans, but is not 
sustained. Neckar holds the purse for a time, and is popular with the 
masses, but not with the court. All now await the States-General. 

Condition of Society. — The nobility were divided into two dis- 
tinctive classes — that of. the court and that of the provinces. The 
latter were poor, sometimes to the verge of suffering. The chateaux 
of their ancestors crumbled to ruin for lack of means to repair them ; 
their farms were without cattle, their fields neglected, their children 
uneducated, yet their pride of rank was such that they suffered and 
died rather than degrade themselves byo honest labor. The court- 
nobility, meanwhile, revelled in luxury and splendor. The bourgeoisie 
had also its distinctions. The high bourgeois not unfrequently became 
a noble by purchase of title or otherwise ; yet the noble of long descent 



1598-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. 193 

never admitted liim to an equality with himself, and he still rested, 
only a titled bourgeois. In pride of manner and of living, the high or 
great bourgeoisie, which comprehended members of parliament, great 
financiers, etc., rivalled the nobility ; in riches it often excelled. It had 
as magnificent chateaux, as superb equipages, and as numerous ser- 
vants. The great dignitaries of parliament were more honored than the 
great seigneurs, and the financiers more coveted than princes. The mid- 
dle bourgeoisie included the old bourgeois families, municipal officers, 
magistrates, etc. The third and most numerous class, the small bour- 
geoisie, embraced wealthy farmers, merchants, etc. The People, like the 
nobility and the bourgeoisie, were self -divided. There were the peojile 
of Paris, of provincial cities, and of the country. Three other distinct 
classes there were among them — artisans, domestics, and cultivators. No 
tie of affinity existed between artisan and cultivator, but both equally 
hated the domestic, as a deserter attached to the service of the common 
enemy, and all hated the bourgeoisie far more than the real aristocracy. 
— By the time of Louis XIV. the original or feudal aristocracy, the 
descendants of the men who had been the king's peers rather than his 
subjects, had been extinguished. A second aristocracy had arisen among 
the survivors of the English and Italian wars. This embraced not only 
the proprietors of ancestral lands, but the Noblesse of the Roll, as they 
were called, being the great law officers and the ennobled bourgeoisie — 
the two latter not being considered identical in rank with the first. — 
Louis XIV. created a third aristocracy, founded on court-favor alone. 

Manners and Customs. — During the sixteenth century the pride of 
great houses lay in the splendor of their carpets, tapestry, and bed- 
hangings. Furniture was very plain and meagre ; a few chests, which 
also served for seats, some stools, two or three benches, and one or two 
arm-chairs for the heads of the family, sufficing for halls, whose hang- 
ings were of the richest material. The sons and daughters, whether 
single or married, sat on little stools in the presence of their parents, 
after having received permission. The walls of commoner houses were 
sometimes wainscoted in panels, sometimes covered with gilt leather. 
Hunting apparatus was a prominent decoration, and the dogs rested 
upon clean straw under the benches. Huge two-tined steel forks — a 
new and refined invention— were used at royal tables. The dandy of 
the time of Henry IV. wore bright satin doublets, stiff with embroidery 
and seed-pearls. His sleeves were slashed with silver tissue. From his 
costly neck-chain pended an immense medallion, set in diamonds. His 
velvet cap, adorned with jewelled clasp and white ostrich plume, was 
perched jauntily over his ear. Broad golden lace bordered his hose, and 
huge gilt spurs were attached to his white or amber-leather boots. His 
heavily-ringed fingers glistened as they toyed with the scented snuff in 
his enameled snuff-box. The full-dressed belle was often so weighted 



194 



THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY, 



[1598-1789. 




by the gold, silver, and jewels which adorned her dress and person, as 
to be unable to move or even to stand. Black velvet masks were worn 
by both sexes, and were considered indispensable to a lady's street toilet. 
The streets continued filthy, and were so narrow that a popular amuse- 
ment was to jump across them from roof to roof of the houses. These 
close, dirty passages so abounded with thieves that it was dangerous 
to traverse them at night without arms and a large train of attendants. 
They were lighted at the corners by large 
vessels filled with pitch and other com- 
bustibles. Afterward lamps were adopted, 
which were suspended on chains stretched 
across the street. The extravagant reign 
of Louis XIV. only increased the poverty 
and miseries of the common people. Mo- 
rality was at a low ebb. Cheating at cards 
was a coveted accomplishment among the 
higher classes, and young nobles invited 
highway robbers to their tables to amuse 
them by spicy details of crime. — The Grand 
Monarque, never sated with the most ser- 
vile flattery, lived and was treated as a 
demi-god. He was most proud of his de- 
portment. " He walked with the tramp of 
dignity, rolling his eyes and turning out his toes, while the courtiers burst 
into loud applause. The red heels of his shoes, four inches high, added 
much to his stature, but did not yet bring him up to the standard of 
ordinary men. In imitation of their royal master, all gentlemen tied 
themselves in at the waist, stuck out their elbows, and walked with a 
strut. They also wore immense wigs, covered with flour, flowing over 
their shoulders, and silver-buckled shoes, that came nearly up to the 
ankle. A hat was impossible on the top of the enormous periwig, so 
they carried the three-cornered cockaded superfluity under their arms 
or in their hands. Rich velvet coats, with amazingly wide skirts, bro- 
caded waistcoats, half-way to the knee, satin small-clothes, and silk 
stockings, composed their apparel, which received its crowning adorn- 
ment in a gold-headed cane and diamond-hilted sword." — [White.] 
In 1699 the royal decree went forth against the high head dresses 
which were in vogue, when, says St. Simon, " the pyramids fell in one 
day from the extremity of height to the extremity of flatness." In the 
time of Louis XVI. high head-dresses were revived, and the fashion- 
plates of the time reveal the most absurd c fancies, from the immense 
panache (panash) — looking like a large feather duster — to a full-rigged 
ship. In the eighteenth century patches again came in favor, and a fash- 
ionable lady always wore seven or eight bits of court-plaster, to represent 



FEMALE HEAD-DRESS (l8TH 
CENTURY.) 



1593-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY, 



195 



the sun, moon, stars, comets, etc., until, according to a critic of the 
time, a lady s face resembled all the signs of the zodiac. Each patch 
had a characteristic name. On the middle of the cheek it was the gal- 
lant; upon the nose the impudent; near the lips the coquette, etc.— The 
clamor in the close, pestiferous streets of Paris is described by a writer 
of the eighteenth century as something fearful. The clashing and 
clanging of clocks and bells in convent and cathedral, joined with the 
screeching or croaking cries of the venders of herbs, fruits, salads, 
brooms, fagots, baked potatoes, rabbit-skins, prime vinegar, etc., etc., 
followed by the bellows menders, scissors-grinders, gatherers of broken 
glass, old iron, cast-off clothing, and screamers of various crafts. There 
were no less than 20,000 water-carriers, whose voices, says La Croix, 
" took the highest key in this in- 
fernal concert." The old houses, 
most of which had stood two or 
three centuries, tottered forward 
over the street, their dilapidation 
only relieved by the singing- 
birds and pots of flowers which 
graced the windows. Their in- 
teriors were squalid, with dark 
and infected courts, damp al- £ 
leys, and narrow, steep stair- 
cases. Space was rare, and 
houses were built on the bridges 
across the Seine. The gutters 
ran midway of the streets, and, 
when swollen by rains, one might 
see here and there small bridges 
on wheels, which some gatherer 
of farthings would run out over 
the road for the benefit of the 
pedestrian who was willing to pay. 
gave out, when the stalwart bridge-owner would safely convey his 
lady customers across on his back. No account was taken of those 
wounded, crushed, and trampled under- foot in the crowded highways. 
Every day, at the angle of certain narrow streets, one or two dead or 
wounded persons were found ; dead or wounded, they were carried 
alike to the Morgue. Persons drowned in the Seine were taken to the 
same place, no effort being made to resuscitate them. A silver medal 
reward was indeed offered by the city to whoever would save a drown- 
ing person, but there was no organization for that purpose till 1782. — 
Of country life we- have a very pretty picture in 1770. The author, 
speaking of his father's household, says : " At supper the whole 




FRENCH FAGOT-VENDER. 



Sometimes the treacherous planks 



19G THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. [1598-1789. 

family — twenty-two in number, including servants— sat down together. 
There was no rank except among the children, where the eldest took 
precedence. After supper my venerable father read a chapter from 
the Scriptures. In summer a short prayer followed, in which all 
joined. Then the children recited a lesson from the catechism, and 
silently retired, for, after evening prayer, laughter or loud talking 
were severely prohibited. In winter the children were allowed to sit 
up, while my father told historical tales. As comments and inquiries 
were allowed during their recital, it was the most delightful recreation 
we knew. The servants were also present, and during the next day 
the subject of the reading was always made the topic of conversa- 
tion." — [Vie de Mon Pere. Restif de la Bretonne.] In contrast to this 
we have the following from La Bruyere (1688): "There are certain 
ferocious animals, male and female, spread over the country, black, 
livid, and sun-burnt; they have an articulate voice., and, when they 
stand on their feet, they show a human face ; in fact, they are men 
and women. At night they retire into their dens, where they live on 
black bread, water, and roots ; they sow, labor, and gather entirely for 
other people, and have at least a right to enough of the bread they 
have sown to sustain their own lives." 

^References for 'Reading, 

Prefixes Life of Henry IV.— Motley's John of Barneveld {SuUy and the " Great 
Design ").— Robeon's Life of Richelieu.— Bulwer Lytton's Richelieu {drama).— Cousin 's 
Secret Hist, of French Court under Richelieu and Mazarin.— Capejigue's Richelieu, 
Mazarin. and the Fronde— Jameses Memoirs of Great Commanders {Conde and Tu- 
renne).— Stanhope's Life of Conde.— Voltaire, Steele de Louis XIV— James's Life of 
Louis XIV— Clemenfs Life and Administration of Colbert.— Bridge's France under 
Richelieu and Colbert.— MacTcay 's Popular Delusions, art. The Mississippi Scheme.— 
Lacretelle's Hist, of France during the Eighteenth Century.— Allison's Hist. Europe, 
Vol. I -II— Stephens' 's Lectures on French History .—Memoirs of the Duke of Sully.— 
Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz.— Par doe's Louis XIV.—Bungener's Preacher and King 
{reign Louis XIV.) and Priest and Huguenot {reign Louis XV.).— Account of the Bas- 
tille and its Remarkable Prisoners.— Scenes and Characters of the English Wars in 
France {Murray's National Library).— Lang' s Ballads and Lyrics of Old France.— 
De Tocqueville's France before the Revolution— Challice's Memories of French Palaces. 
— Tounge's History of France under the Bourbons. 

JfJrents of the Sixth JZpoch in Chronological Order. 

PAGE 

1598-1715. Henry IV. Sully. Marshal de Biron. The 

" Grand Design." Assassination of Henry . 144-47 

1610-1643. Louis XIII. The Regency of Marie de' Medici, 
Concini, Leonora, and De Luynes. Richelieu. 
Capture of Rochelle. Day of the Dupes. Con- 
spiracies. The Thirty Years War. Alsace, 
Artois, etc., annexed to France .... 147-56 



1598-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MOJfABCHY. 197 



16-13-1715. Louis XIV. Cardinal Mazarin. The "Great 
Conde." Battles of Eocroi, Fribourg, Nord- 
lingen, and Lens. Treaty of Westplialia. The 
Fronde. Day of the Barricades. Peace of the 
Pyrenees. Colbert. Invasion of Flanders and 
Holland. Turenne. Treaty of Nimeguen. Age 
of Louis XIV. Revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes. Devastation of the Palatinate. Lux- 
emburg. Battles of Fleurus, Steinkirk, and 
Neerwinden. Peace of Ryswick. War of the 
Spanish Succession. Battles of Blenheim, Ra- 
millies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. Treaty 
of Utrecht. ........ 156-74 

1715-1774. Louis XV. The Regency of the Duke of Orleans. 
The Quadruple Alliance. Law and the Mis- 
sissippi Scheme. Cardinal Fleury. War for 
the Succession of Austria. Marshal Saxe. 
Battles of Dettingen, Fontenoy, Raucoux, and 
Lawfelt. Treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe. Madame 
de Pompadour. The Seven Years War. Bat- 
tles of Rosbach, Crevelt, and Minden. Peace 
of Paris . 174-85 

1774-1789. Louis XVI. Marie Antoinette. Maurepas.' Males- 
herbes. Turgot, Caloime, and Neckar. War 
in the United States. Treaty of Versailles. 
The States General . . ". . . . 185-91 



Distinguished Names of the 77th and /8th Centuries. 

Corneille (1606-1684), the father of French tragedy— the " Cid" made his fame. 

Descartes (1598-1650), an illustrious philosopher and mathematician. 

Pascal (1628-1662\ mathematician and philosopher, author of the celebrated 
Provincial Letters. On the mountain, called Puy de D6rne, with the barometer, he 
proved that the air has weight, and exploded the ancient theory of a vacuum. 

•#/"<?/«<?>-e.(1622-1693), comic author and orator ; ridiculed the follies and vices of 
his time unsparingly.* 

* The HStel de Rambouillet was the centre of a literary coterie. Three ladies, 
mother, daughter, and granddaughter, here ruled in succession the most brilliant 
minds of the age. To Julie d'Augennes, the last and most famous of the thr^e, 
"every one burnt incense as to a divinity." The avowed object of this exclusive 
circle was to devulgarize popular conversation. A mystical, enigmatical form of 
language grew into favor, which was copied by other imitators and societies until 
their extravagance, first attacked by Desmarets in his comedy of " Les Visionnaires " 
(1637), received a death-blow in Molierc's "Les Precieuses Ridicules " (1659). 



198 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 

La Fontaine (1621-1895), poet and fabulist — the modern iEsop. 

Madame de Sevigne (1627-1696), famed for her delightful letters to her daughter. 

Racine (1639-1699), rivalled, if he did not surpass, the tragedies of Corneille. 

Fenelon (1651-1715), a distinguished preacher and author— chief work, " Les Aven- 
tures de Telemaque," a school-book of to-day. 

liotlin (1661-1741), professor of rhetoric ; best known as an author of an ancient 
history still in use. 

Ze Sage (1668-1747), romancer and dramatist ; author of " Gil Bias.'" 

Dossuet, Rourdaloue, and Massillon, the three great pulpit orators of the 
age of Louis XIV. They all uttered their solemn warnings before the Grand Mon- 
arque, and the last pronounced over his grave the sublime words, "God alone 
is great." 

Rousseau (1712-1778), a skeptic, maintained the equal rights of all men; his 
Essay,* "Contrat Social,'' obliged him to leave France. 

Montesquieu (1689-1755), a writer far in advance of his times, as an advocate of 
liberty and humanity. His *'* Spirit of the Laws " ran through 22 editions in eighteen 
months. 

Voltaire (1694-1778), wrote with equal ease tragedy, satire, romance, poetry, 
history, and philosophy ; was a kind of national idol among the French, and his free- 
thinking had a prodigious influence. 

jBuffon (1707-1788), a naturalist and philosopher. His celebrated Natural History 
was one of the greatest works of the 18th century. 

r Diderot and Ifrtlembert, fathers of the Encyclopaedia, a dictionary in 22 folio 
volumes. It contained much valuable information, but its teachings were saturated 
with skepticism, hatred of the past, and upset even morality itself. 

Lavoisier (1743-1794), discoverer of the accepted theory of combustion, and the 
father of modern chemistry. 

Laptace (1749-1827), author of the "Treatise on Celestial Mechanics." 

Legendre (1752-1833), an eminent mathematician, best known from his Elements 
of Geometry. 



* " The effect of his writings upon the French mind is not badly typified at his 
tomb in the Pantheon in Paris, where a hand is represented as holding through a 
partially opened door a flaming torch to set fire to the world." 




J-.WeUs Del. 



REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE 



17S9 to Present Time. 



I.— The Revolution (ll 



-1814). 



1. Abolition of the Monarchy and the 
Reign of Terror. 
The Directory, 
lie Consulate. 
The Empire. 

II.— The Restoration (1814-1830), including The Hundred Days (1815). 
III.— The House of Orleans (1830-1848). IV.— The Second Republic (1848-1852). 
V.— The Second Empire (1852-1870). VI.— The Third Republic (1871). 



-! 2. Tl 

8. Tl 
[ 4. Tl 




BOLITION of the Mon- 
archy and Reign of Ter- 
ror.— The States-General 

were convened with great 
pomp.* Men's hearts were 
profoundly stirred by the 
return of a body of which 
France had been so long 
deprived, and from which so 
much was expected. The 
strength of the Third Es- 
tate soon made itself felt. 

Geoc/rapMcal Questions— Locate Varennes (ren). Valmy. Jemappes. Neer- 
winden. Lyons. La Vendee. Nice. Lodi. Parma. Pavia. Castiglione (kas-tel- 
yo-na). Bassano. Arcole. Mantua. Mt. Cenis. Simplon Pass. Marengo. Vienna. 
Hohenlinden. Ulm. Jena (ya-na). Austerlitz. Eylau (low). Friedland. Tilsit! 
Oporto. Talavera. Torres Vedras (va-dras). Sara^ossa. Salamanca. Vittoria. 
Madrid. Wagram. Essling. Berlin. Hamburg. Bremen. Dresden. Borodino. 
Moscow. Leipsic. Ligny (leen-ya). Quatre Bras (kat'r-bra). Waterloo. 

* The costumes and ceremonies used in 1614 were reproduced. The lower clergy 
in cassocks, large mantles, and square caps; bishops and archbishops in violet robes, 



200 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789. 

The first question that arose was whether the three orders 
should vote collectively or separately. The nobles and 
clergy haying retired to their own chambers, according 
to custom, the tiers-etcd refused to act until they re- 
turned. After five weeks spent in useless parleys, the Com- 
mons decided itself to be the National Assembly,* and pro- 
ceeded to deliberate upon the affairs of the state without 
reference to the other bodies. Louis thereupon closed the 
hall and suspended the meetings, preparatory to a royal 
sitting. 

The Tennis-Ccnrt Oath. — The members then withdrew 
to a tennis-court near by, and solemnly swore not to separate 
until they had given France a constitution. 

Royal Sitting. — Three days after, the king held a royal 
sitting. f The concessions he made would at an earlier day 
have awakened transports of joy. Now they were received 
in profound silence. He however censured the conduct of 
the Assembly, annulled its decrees, and threatened to dis- 
solve it, if he met with further opposition. As he rose, he 
ordered the members to retire, and thereafter to assemble in 
their respective rooms. The nobles and a greater part of the 
clergy obeyed. The tiers-etat retained their seats. After a 
time the grand-master of ceremonies reappeared and re- 
minded them of the king's command. "Go and tell your 

tunic, and surplice ; the nobles in gold-embroidered cloaks, lace cravats, and white- 
plumed, up-turned hats, a VHenri Quatre, made a magnificent display, while the 
Commons, equal in number to both the other orders, were allowed only short, plain, 
black cloaks, muslin cravats, and slouched hats. Far from being overawed, as was 
intended, by the splendor of the higher ranks, or humbled by the freezing treatment 
they received, the Commons felt only indignation. "How is all this pomp sup- 
ported ? " they asked of each other. " Out of the sweat of the people ! '•' was wrath- 
fully answered. 

* This name is said to have been suggested to La Fayette by Jefferson, then min- 
ister plenipotentiary to France. 

+ The tiers-etat were made to wait outside, in a heavy rain, till the clergy and 
nobility had entered and taken their seats on the right and left of the throne. Just 
as they were about to retire, drenched with the shower and thoroughly indignant, a 
side door opened and admitted them to the hall. 



1789.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 201 

master," retorted the fiery Mirabeau, " that we are here by 
the will of the people, and nothing but the bayonet shall 
drive us hence" " We are to-day," added Sieyes, with calm- 
ness, "just what we were yesterday. Let us deliberate. 5 ' 
From that day the royal authority was lost. The next after- 
noon the clergy and nobles flocked in to join the tiers-etat, 
Louis himself advising the few who stood out to yield. 

Storming of the Bastille. — Authority having failed, the 
king had now no resource but submission or the bayonet. 
On Sunday, July 12, Paris was raised to a ferment of ex- 
citement by hearing that Neckar had been dismissed, and 
troops were rapidly collecting at Versailles. An immense 
crowd, ready for anything, flocked to the Palais Eoyal. 
Here a young man, Camille Desmoulins, more daring than 
the rest, mounted a table, pistol in hand, and shouted : 
" Citizens, if we would save our lives, we must fly to arms." 
Plucking a leaf from a tree and placing it in his hat, ho 
gave the signal to the crowd, who soon stripped the trees 
bare. The lawless procession then commenced their wild 
march through the street. This Was the beginning of an 
insurrection which grew in violence and lawlessness* till 
Tuesday morning, when the cry was raised : " To the Bas- 
tille ! " Onward surged the maddened crowd to the foot of 
the gloomy prison. Marquis de Launay, a stanch old soldier, 
with a little garrison of thirty-two Swiss and eighty- two 
invalids, made desperate defence. For four hours, amid 
"smoke as of Tophet, confusion as of Babel, noise as of the 
crack of r'oom," he held the pack at bay; then, yielding to 
the cannon of the French guards, gaye up the grim old for- 

* The French guards, when called out to disperse the mob, refused to fire. The 
citizens formed themselves into a National Guard, and took the blue and i*ed colors 
of Paris for a cockade ; La Fayette added white— the Bourbon color— saying : " Here 
is a cockade that will make the tour of the world.'" This was the origin of the famous 
tricolor. 



202 



KEVOLUTIONAEY FRANCE. 



[1789. 



tress. The furious mob rushed in. De Launay was dragged 
to the Place du Greve and cruelly murdered. Others shared 
his fate, and their bleeding heads were borne on pikes along 




SCENE IN PARIS AFTER THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE. 

the streets. The famous stronghold which Conde had be- 
sieged in vain had fallen.* It was the first scene in the 
tragedy of the Ee volution. f 

Progress of the Revolution. — Humbled and sorrowful, 
the king now ordered away the troops, went on foot to the 
Assembly, and promised to recall Neckar. He then visited 
Paris, where he repeated his efforts at pacification.^ But his 

* The keys of the Bastille were presented hy La Fayette to Washington, and still 
hang in the mansion at Mt. Vernon. 

t On hearing the news, Louis exclaimed: "Why, this is a revolt I" "Sire," was 
the reply, " it is a revolution." 

X He was received at the gates hy Bailly, mayor of the city, who handed him the 
keys, sayiug: "These are the same keys that were presented to Henry IV. Ke had 
conquered his people ; now it is the people who have conquered their king." 



1789.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 203 

power was gone. In the grand apartments at Versailles, amidst 
stately avenues and beautiful flower-gardens, all through 
these bright summer days, sad and fearful in heart, waited 
the royal family. Hither, from time to time, came startling 
news. The insurrection was sweeping like wildfire. Every- 
where throughout the country the peasantry were rising, 
torch in hand. Convents and castles were in flames. Title- 
deeds and feudal charters were scattered to the winds. Tax- 
collectors were being burnt at slow fires, or hacked to pieces 
before their wives and children. Even in Paris, Bailly and 
La Fayette, with the National Guard, were unable to keep 
order, and crowds of women continually traversed the streets, 
noisily demanding bread; while thousands of half-starved 
wretches, flocking in from the provinces, were encamped on 
the heights of Montmartre, overlooking Paris. 

Abolition of Privileges. — "It was plain," says Mrs. 
Edwards, " that the First Estate must bow its proud head 
before the five-and-twenty savage millions, make restitution, 
speak well, smile fairly — or die." On the memorable night 
of August 4th, the nobles set the example by the sacrifice of 
their privileges. Old feudal rights were yielded. Serfdom 
was abolished. Taxes were equalized. The clergy relin- 
quished their tithes and fees. The tiers-etat surrendered 
privileges of cities and provinces. All these sweeping decrees 
Louis accepted, and, amid long and tumultuous applause, was 
hailed " The restorer of French liberty." 

The Assembly was now the strongest body in the state. 
The corporations depended upon it; the National Guard 
obeyed it ; the king feared it. In imitation of our Declara- 
tion of Independence, it drew up a "Declaration of the 
Eights of Man." It also marked out the leading principles 
of a limited monarchy based on a constitution. 

The Mob; at first encouraged in popular demonstration 



204 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789. 

by the Assembly, in order to intimidate the court, had 
already begun to feel its strength. The Commune * of 
Paris, various political clubs, and a huge, incongruous assem- 
blage, which met daily and nightly at the Palais Royal, were 
fast getting control of the revolution. 

Attack upon Versailles (October 5, 6).— News of a 
banquet,! given by the king's guards to the Flanders regi- 
ment at Versailles, again roused hungry, revolutionary Paris. 
An immense rabble of women, armed with various weapons, 
and crying " Bread ! Bread ! " poured into Versailles. They 
flooded the Assembly chamber. Some even pushed into the 
presence of the king. There was a brawl and some blood- 
shed. La Fayette's arrival about midnight, with the Parisian 
army, quieted affairs for a few hours. Toward morning a 
party of rioters, finding a gate unfastened, rushed, with hor- 
rible threats, across the court and up the marble staircase 
toward the queen's apartments. She had barely time to 
escape to the king's bedchamber. La Fayette again came to 
the rescue with a body of grenadiers, and drove the mob out 
of the palace. The cry of " The king to Paris," however, 
could not be resisted, and the royal family set out for the 
city. They were escorted the entire distance by the savage 
mob, J singing songs and dancing with cruel glee. "We shall 

* After sending their members to the States-General, the electors of Paris had 
formed themselves into permanent committees, and taken possession of the Hotel de 
Ville. This was the origin of the Commune. 

t The court, alarmed by the menacing aspect of affairs, had persuaded the king to 
recall some troops to Versailles. At a welcoming feast, given in the palace theatre, 
great enthusiasm prevailed ; and, when the royal family appeared on the stage, they 
were greeted with wild applause. As they withdrew, the band struck up " O Eichard ! 
O Mon Roi ! Funivers t'abandonne I " Oaths of fidelity were taken amid sobs and 
tears ; the health of the royal family was drank with swords drawn ; and, while white 
cockades were freely distributed by the ladies of the court, it was rumored that the 
tricolors were trampled under foot. 

t Part of them had left in the morning, carrying with them the bleeding heads of 
two of the king's body-guard. They stopped at Sevres on the way, and compelled 
a barber to cut and powder the hair, that all might recognize them as aristocrat 
heads. 



1789.] 



ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 



205 



not die of hunger now," shouted they, on reaching the Tuil- 
eries, "for here is the baker, his wife, and his boy." Thus 
closed the second scene in the revolution. 



MM |l/7"*5v 







THE MOB MARCHING TO VERSAILLES. 



Emigration of the Nobility. — At the first alarm, the 
princes of the blood and other members of the nobility, who, 
by their foolish advice and stubborn resistance to reform, 
had. done so much to precipitate the revolution, sought safety 
in flight. Other members of the court now followed. Ere 
long the king, queen, their two children, and the king's sis- 
ter, Elizabeth, were * left alone. Before the end of the year 
three hundred deputies had deserted their posts in the As- 
sembly. Some of them joined the allied armies, and came 
back in the ranks of their country's enemies. Many who 
had disdained any honorable labor at home, begged for bread 
or sought menial employment in foreign cities. 

Work of the Assembly. — A year of comparative quiet 



206 EEVOLUTIONAEY FE'ANCE. [1790. 

now ensued. The Assembly, having followed the court to 
Paris, went on with the work of reform. Liberty of con- 
science, of the press, and of industry, were proclaimed. The 
laws of primogeniture were abrogated. All titles and ranks 
were abolished. Civil and military employments were thrown 
open to all. Universal suffrage was virtually proclaimed. The 
courts of justice were reformed.* Intendants were abolished, 
and France was divided into eighty-three departments. The 
vast estates of the clergy were confiscated. Promissory notes, 
or assignats, secured upon this property were issued, and soon 
became the only currency. 

Fete of the Federation (July 14, 1790).— The anni- 
versary of the taking of the Bastille was celebrated by im- 
posing ceremonies in the Champs de Mars. Amid the 
thunders of the cannon and shouts of " Vive le roi ! " Louis 
took the oath to support the new constitution. At this 
moment the queen raised the dauphin in her arms to show 
him to the people, who burst into new rounds of applause. 
A hymn of thanksgiving closed the day. It was a, fete which 
had no morrow. 

Political Clubs now began to control affairs. The Jacobins 
— so called because their meetings were held in the hall of a 
former Jacobin convent— comprised the most rabid of the 
revolutionists, such as Danton, Marat, St. Just, and Eobes- 
pierre. Over 2,000 auxiliary clubs throughout the country 
helped to feed the central fire. The Cordeliers, also named 
from a monastic hall, were like the Jacobins, but less power- 
ful. Opposed to these was the Club of J 89, containing the 
moderates who supported the constitution. 



* About this time a proposal was made by Dr. Guillotin to change the form of 
capital punishment from hanging to beheading. The instrument which was after- 
Avard adopted for this purpose was called by his name, and soon obtained an infa- 
mous notoriety. 



1791.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 207 

Complications. — Day by clay affairs grew more confused. 
The troops had fallen into general disorganization. The no- 
bles who remained derided the Assembly, and endeavored to 
hedge up its work ; while those who had fled sought to arouse 
Europe in their own behalf. Even the king, after having 
sworn to keep the constitution, addressed letters to foreign 
powers seeking their aid. The clergy, seeing the hostility 
of the revolution, declared war against it. A large majority 
refused to take the oath of fealty to the constitution, and 
were ejected from their places. Thus religious hatred be- 
came mingled with civil strife. Emigration continued. The 
roads to the Ehine were crowded with elegant equipages, car- 
rying away the noblest families in France. Assignats were 
issued to an enormous amount. JSTeckar, returning to 
Geneva, barely escaped with his life along the highway he 
had so lately traversed in triumph ; — the revolution had out- 
stripped and discarded him. There was but one man "whose 
powerful genius might have yet moderated the revolution 
into a reformation. This was Mirabeau, then President of 
the Assembly, who now entered into a private alliance with 
the court, His untimely death destroyed the last hope.* 

The Flight of the King (June 20, 1791).— Louis now 
decided to escape with his family to the army commanded by 
the loyal Marquis de Bouille. Stealing out of the palace by 
night, they reached a carriage which awaited them. Seventy 
miles had been passed in safety, when at Varennes they were 
arrested and forced to return. They entered the Tuileries 
amid a sinister silence. f It was only after a stormy debate 

* Mirabeau was a worn-out debauchee. "I am paying dear," he often said, "for 
the follies of my youth.'" Once he broke a solemn silence by these impressive 
words: "Oh, if I had brought to the revolution a character like Malesherbes, what 
destinies I should have assured to my country ! What glory I should have attached 
to my name ! " 

t A strange fatality seemed to hang over this journey from the first. The queen 
lost her way on leaving the palace, and wandered over an hour about the streets of 



208 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1791. 

that a decree was passed to reinstate the king on the throne. 
The Assembly, having finished the constitution, which was 
ratified by Louis, then adjourned. 

The Legislative Assembly (1791), which now met, was 
composed of new men, as the National Assembly had passed 
a resolution declaring its members ineligible for re-election. 
The old Assembly had consisted largely of persons from the 
middle class— the bourgeoisie ; this was composed mainly of 
the lower classes — and the members were generally as noisy, 
coarse, and presumptuous as they were rude and ignorant. 

Three Powerful Factions soon began to struggle for 
the mastery. (1.) The Feuillants, as they were styled, from 
the hall in which they met, supported the constitution and 
work of the late Assembly. (2.) The Girondists, so called 
because the brilliant orators from the department of the 
Gironde were at its head, were republicans. (3.) The Moun- 
tain, thus named because it occupied the highest seats in the 
chamber, was composed of demagogues, Jacobins, Cordeliers, 
and anarchists, without principles, who relied on the rabble, 
and aimed to sweep away all distinctions. 

Paris before she found the carriage. The roads were had, and the cumbersome coach 
which they took outside the city was obliged to stop for repairs before twenty miles 
were over. At Chalons the horses broke their traces, and another precious half- 
hour was lost. At Pont de Sommevesle their waiting escort had excited the sus- 
picions of the inhabitants, and, after lingering four hours beyond the appointed 
time, had dispersed, believing the plan defeated. At Ste. Menehould the second 
detachment in waiting had stabled their horses for the night, Here the fate of the 
royal flight was decided. The awkward Louis, who had no better success in playing 
his assumed part as valet than his real part as king, thrust his head outside the win- 
dow, and, in an agitated voice, inquired about the cross-road to Varennes. The 
sharp eyed postmaster, Drout, had been to Paris and seen the king. Peering into the 
carriage, he caught under the gypsy hat of the pretended lady's maid the Austrian 
features of Maine Antoinette. They were allowed to pass on, but the fiery patriot 
mounted his swiftest horse, and, with a host of strong republicans, was at Varennes 
to bar the road and capture the prize. The different natures of the king and queen 
were curiously manifest at the little tallow-chandler's shop where the royal family 
were taken after their arrest. While Marie Antoinette was weeping and entreating 
the woman of the shop to aid their escape— her hair having turned gray through the 
terror of a single night— the phlegmatic Louis had called for refreshments, of which 
he heartily partook, blandly assuring the grocer that his "wine was very good 
indeed! 1 ' 



1792] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 209 

Declaration of War. — Austrian and Prussian armies, 
actively encouraged by the emigrants and the disaffected 
clergy, were now collecting in threatening numbers on the 
frontier. To meet this emergency the Assembly pronounced 
death and confiscation of property against the nobles * if 
found in arms, and decreed that the nonjuring priests should 
be deprived of the scanty pension they yet received. Louis 
was forced to dismiss his Feuillant ministry and appoint a 
Girondist cabinet.f War was declared against the empire 
(1792). 

Insurrection of the Faubourgs (1792).— The first 
campaign proving a failure, it was attributed to treachery. 
The Assembly thereupon decreed the exile of the refractory 
clergy, and the establishment of a camp of 20,000 soldiers 
under the walls of Paris. Louis could not consent to banish 
his friends, and in the proposed camp he saw an attempt to 
overawe Paris. He therefore vetoed both measures. The 
Jacobins were in a frenzy. The king was nicknamed Mon- 
sieur Veto, and represented as an imbecile and a traitor. The 
breach between him and the Assembly widened daily. He 
dismissed his Girondist ministry, and sent a secret messenger, 
to the allied princes. The Jacobins and Girondists combined 
in stirring up the mob. On the 20th of June a rabble of 
30,000 men, women, and children, armed with guns and pikes, 

* Louis vetoed these measures, and was hence held to sympathize with the emi- 
grants. The court also committed the strange mistake of supporting Petion. a 
Girondist, as mayor of Paris, against La Fayette, whom the queen especially dis- 
liked. 

t M. Koland, the new minister of the interior, was a man of moderate abilities, 
who owed his distinction almost entirely to his wife, a graceful enthusiast, twenty 
years younger than himself. Beautiful, talented, and a rabid republican, Madame 
Roland was her husband's oracle and the soul of the Gironde. In character, Roland 
was strictly moral, a fearless adviser, and an honest patriot. M. Dumouriez, minis- 
ter of foreign affairs, possessed what Roland lacked and lacked what Roland pos- 
sessed. Witty and able, he had no profound political convictions. Fresh from the 
club where he had worn the red cap of liberty and sung the Ca Ira — a favorite repub- 
lican song — he could calmly sit in council with his unfortunate king. A courtier up 
to 1789, he was afterward, in turn, a constitutionalist, a Girondist, and a Jacobin, 



210 



REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 



[1792. 



after having been allowed to pass through the Assembly hall, 
made a rush on the Tuileries. Louis received them with 
placid composure. Taking the red cap which was thrust 
toward him on the end of a pike, he placed it on his head ; 

while from a bottle handed 
him by a half-drunken work- 
man he drank to the health of 
the nation. After four hours 
of threat and insult, the mob 
yielded to the persuasion of 
Mayor Petion, and slowly 
dispersed.* 

Attack upon the Tui- 
leries (August 10). — The 
heroic conduct of the royal 
family, and the brutal inso- 
lence to which they were 
subjected, aroused a momentary reaction. But just at 
this juncture the Duke of Brunswick, in command of the 
allied armies, issued a proclamation announcing his coming 




MARIE ANTOINETTE, AND THE 
DAUPHIN. 



* Let us imagine this uproarious red-capped rabble, headed by a pair of ragged, 
black silk breeches, stretched on a tall cross-staff, with the motto " Tremble Tyrants ! 
The Sans-Culottes are coming ; " bearing a calf s heart, transfixed by a pike, and 
labelled " Aristocrat's heart;" singing vile songs and waving menacing banners; 
hooting, pushing, dancing, and steaming with perspiration from their long, hot 
march, as they burst into the majestic chambers of the Tuileries. The patient 
Louis, crowned with the grotesque red cap, stands behind a barricade of tables, and 
joins for his life in the deafening cry of " Long live liberty ! Long live the nation ! " 
In another corner is the proud Marie Antoinette, Avith an enormous tricolor cockade 
in her hair. The little dauphin shrinks as a rough patriot clasps the red cap on his 
head; and the heroic Princess Elizabeth would fain have the mob believe Aer"the 
Austrian, 1 ' that she may die to save the queen. Orators on tables, orators on men's 
shoulders, fifty orators at once, make a distracting bedlam; while women shriek 
their inane curses, and butchers and brewers fight for the supremacy in bringing 
down -the royal pride. — As the crowd press on, a woman's voice overtops the rest in 
gross abuse of the queen. "What have I ever done to you that you should hate me 
so ? " asks Marie Antoinette. " You are the curse of the nation and the cause of all 
our woes," the woman fiercely answers. "Alas!" says the queen, "so you have 
been told; but you are deceived. W r ife of your king, mother to the dauphin, I am 
a true Frenchwoman. Never can I be happy or unhappy but in France. I was happy 
when you all loved mc ! " The Fury is touched to the heart and goes out weeping. 



1792.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 211 

to enforce the royal authority, and threatening, in case of 
any outrage to the king, to deliver up Paris to instant 
destruction. Popular indignation flamed out at this insult- 
ing language. It gave just the opportunity Dan ton, Marat, 
Kobespierre,* and the other Jacobins desired to execute 
their scheme of dethroning the king by force. Federate 
bands were called in from various cities. The one from 
Marseilles, conspicuous for its brutality, brought with it a 
song destined to become famous, and to fire the hearts of 
Frenchmen long after the revolution itself was past. The 
court made such arrangements as it could for defence. 
Long-hidden men of rank, armed with swords and pistols; 
serving men with pokers and tongs, uncouth weapons that 
even in this hour of extremity provoked a smile ; the Swiss 
Guard, loyal to the last ; and a few of the National Guard, 
whom it was thought could still be relied upon, were gath- 
ered at the Tuileries. Mandat, however, commander of the 
National Guard, was treacherously slain. The presence of so 
many well-known loyalists excited discontent. "When Louis, 
urged by the queen, reviewed his troops in the early morn- 
ing, they shouted " Vive le nation ! " while some of the can- 
noneers shook their fists in his face and loaded him with 
abuse. The mob surrounded the palace, and their guns 

* These three formed what was called the triumvirate. Danton, gigantic in stature 
and with a voice like thunder, excelled all his colleagues in audacity. A starving 
advocate in 1789, prodigal in tastes and hopelessly in debt, his personal interests 
whetted his revolutionary zeal. Pitiless in general measures, he was humane and 
even generous in individual instances. Robespierre was in* many respects his oppo- 
site. He was small in figure, feeble in voice, frugal in living, and free of debt. He 
had the reputation of being incorruptible. Personal vanity was one of his ruling 
passions. His dingy little apartment was lined with mirrors. While the other revo- 
lutionary leaders affected a squalid dress and soiled linen, Robespierre always dressed 
neatly and tastefully, powdered his hair, and usually appeared with a flower in his 
button-hole. Neither bribe nor personal intercession could move him. His heart 
was set on 300,000 aristocrat heads. Marat was a blood-thirsty ruffian, without one 
redeeming quality. Unclean in his person, he was ugly even to hideousness in form 
and features. He urged the most ferocious measures without pity or remorse. His 
cruelty was only equalled by his cowardice. He edited a p;iper called The Friend of 
the Peojrte, by which name his admirers soon came to designate himself. 



212 KEVOLUTIONAEY FRANCE. [1792. 

threatened it on every side. A deputation from the Assem- 
bly came to offer a refuge to the royal family.* Under the 
protection of the Swiss Guard they reached the Assembly 
hall in safety, where for fifteen hours they listened to the 
wild harangues within and the furious shouts without. 
Meanwhile the Tuileries was carried, ransacked, and plun- 
dered by the frenzied mob. The faithful Swiss guards were 
cruelly massacred, and the palace became a frightful scene of 
blood and confusion. At one o'clock in the morning the 
royal family were conducted to the hall of the Feuillants, 
and two days afterward to the gloomy fortress of the 
Temple. 

Massacres of September. — For several days there was 
a general destruction of all memorials of the monarchy. The 
legislative body itself was as wild as the mob. Searching 
visits to private houses having filled the prisons, it was de- 
cided to dispose of the captives en masse. The Commune hired 
three hundred ruffians, at twenty-four francs per day, which 
was paid by the magistrates. Each prison was visited in 
turn. To afford amusement to the crowd, seats were arranged 
at the doors, and at night lamps were lighted. The unhappy 
victims, driven from their cells, were greeted with savage 
yells and the fast-falling strokes of the sabre, as they issued 
into the street. For four days the terrible slaughter went 
on. Skilful in inventing tortures for those whom they could 
not reach, the ferocious mob held up to the windows of the 
Temple, under the eyes of the queen, the head of her dearest 
friend, the beautiful Princess de Lauiballe. 

War with Germany. — While Paris had been witnessing 
these terrible scenes, the Prussian army, admirably equipped 

* "I would ralher be nailed to the walls of the palace than leave it," exclaimed the 
quaen ; and, seizin? a pistol, she handed it to the kin?, saying : " Now, sire, is the 
time to show yourself. 1 ' He was silent. "He had," remarks Alison, "the resigna- 
tion of a martyr, not the courage of a hero." 



1792.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 213 

and disciplined, and containing a body of cavalry 15,000 
strong, the very elite of the French nobility, was making 
rapid progress. It had taken Longwy and Verdun, and 
seemed likely to perform "the military promenade*' to Paris, 
of which it gayly talked. At this juncture Dnmouriez, the 
French general, by his skill and the gallantry of his troops, 
unexpectedly checked the Prussian advance at Valmy (1792). 
The enemy, already weakened by sickness and famine, soon 
recrossed the Rhine. 

The effect was electrical. The raw revolutionary levies were 
emboldened to contend with the standing armies of the an- 
cient regime. The soldiers acquired confidence in them- 
selves. The desire of military achievement was quickened 
throughout France. " From this place and this day forth," 
wrote Goethe, " commences a new era in the world's history." 
The French Revolution entered on a career of conquest which 
led it to Vienna and the Kremlin. The xictory of Jemmapes 
over the Austrians followed. This opened Belgium, which at 
the close of the year was proclaimed a republic. 

The National Convention (1792), as the next Assembly 
was styled, contained the most violent revolutionists, such as 
Robespierre, Marat, Dantan, Camille Desnioulins, Anacharsis 
Clootz,* and the Duke of Orleans, who, to gain popular favor, 
had taken the name of Philip Egalite. Royalty was immedi- 
ately abolished and the republic proclaimed. Assistance was 
proffered to the nations of the world desiring liberty. The 
French generals were directed to confiscate the property of 
priests and nobles, and to abolish the existing governments 
wherever they went. 

* Renouncing his name of Jean Baptiste, which savored too much of the Christian- 
ity he hated, Clootz took that of the old Scythian philosopher. His title of Baron he 
exchanged for " Orator of Mankind." In 1790 he visited the Assembly chamber, fol- 
lowed by a motley crowd, dressed in the costumes of different nations, which he 
pompously introduced as "An embassy from the Human Race come to assist the 
happy French to raise the cap of Liberty and push the triumphal car." 



214 REVOLUTIONARY TRANCE. [1793. 

Trial and Death of Louis XVI. — Having lain in prison 
several months, Louis was finally brought to trial. He was 
accused of plotting against the liberty of the people, and cf 
intriguing with the emigrant nobles and the European pow- 
ers. The venerable Malesherbes, at the peril of life, volun- 
teered for his defence. The Girondists hoped to save him, 
but their timid efforts failed. Louis conducted himself with 
singular dignity and resignation. His case, however, was pre- 
judged.* " Louis Capet/' as they insisted upon styling him, 
was, after a stormy debate, declared guilty and sentenced to 
die. A respite for three days for which he asked was re- 
fused. Amid profound silence he Avas conducted to the 
scaffold. At the last moment he attempted to address the 
multitude, but the drums beat, the executioner dragged him 
to the guillotine, and in an instant he was no more. The 
bleeding head was lifted up, and the crowd answered by 
shouts of " Vive la Republique ! " 

Terrible Energy of the Convention. — "There is now," 
exclaimed Marat, "no retreat: we must conquer or die." On 
hearing of Louis's execution, England, Holland, Spain, and 
the Empire flaw to arms. "It was," says Duruy, "a crusade 
of all the European royalties and aristocracies, not to avenge 
Louis XVI., but to strangle the principles of new social 
order thrown into the world by the revolution." England 
was the soul of this coalition, and her fleets and subsi- 
dies were freely offered. The province of La Vendee, resist- 
ing the conscription of troops ordered by the Convention, 
broke into insurrection. f Dumouriez lost the battle of Neer- 

* A savage mob, gathered about the doors of the Assembly, heaped threats on all 
who dared to be merciful. Even the brave President Vergniaud, who at first pleaded 
for him with passionate eloquence, finally wavered jn his allegiance. The infamous 
Orleans, amid a murmur of horror, voted fur his death. 

t This country, bounded by the Loire and the sea, and crossed by few roads, had 
retained its ancient feudal customs. The nobles habitually Jived on their estates, 
keeping up a kind intercourse with their simple and sturdy tenants, who, in turn, 



1793.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 215 

winden (1793) against the Austrians, evacuated Belgium, and, 
disgusted with the turn of affairs, went over to the allied 
camp. At one time over sixty departments were in arms 
against the revolutionists. Menaced thus on every hand, the 
Jacobins evinced an energy and fury which have no parallel 
in history. An entirely new order of men had arisen. Daring 
spirits, who in common times would have dragged out an 
obscure life in country towns, had grasped the reins of 
power. Heedless, savage, enthusiastic, they were appalled 
by no danger. The Girondists, thoroughly alarmed, in vain 
endeavored to check the torrent they had let loose. The 
Eevolutionary Tribunal was established (1793) to try the 
enemies of the republic. Fouquier-Tinville, a man who de- 
lighted in a death-sentence, was made public accuser. In each 
of the 48,000 communes of France a committee was appointed 
to bring suspected persons before local tribunals; while a 
General Committee of Public Safety was decreed for the 
entire country. The arrest of the Girondists was ordered. 
Some were taken on the spot ; those who escaped were out- 
lawed and pursued with unrelenting vengeance. A few found 
refuge at Caen,* where they entered into communication 
with the disaffected. Fourteen armies, containing 1,200,000 
soldiers, were at once put under arms against the rebellious 
provinces. Lyons made a desperate resistance, but was con- 
quered after a two months' siege,f upon which the Conven- 

were devotedly attached to their landlords, their religion, and the old monarchical 
government. 

* About this time Charlotte Corday, a beautiful young woman of excellent parent- 
age in Caen, inspired by the sentiments of the Girondists, went to Paris, determined 
to avenge their misfortunes. Obtaining admission to Marat on pretence of imparting 
important information, she stabbed him to the heart. She was instantly arrested and 
condemned to execution. Glorying in her deed, and declaring that she had only 
killed one man to save 100,000 others, she met her fate with a smile. 

+ The Revolutionary Tribunal was set up in that city under the supervision of 
Couthon, Fouche. and Collot d'Herbois. The latter was an actor, who had been 
hissed from the Lyons stage ten years before. Finding the guillotine too slow for 
his vengeance, he had the victims brought out in batches, and mowed down with 



21G REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1793. 

tion decreed that it should be destroyed, that its name should 
be changed, and a monument erected on its ruins, with the 
inscription: "Lyons made war upon liberty; Lyons is no 
more." Fifteen thousand persons perished at Nantes in one 
month. Toulon called in an English fleet, but Napoleon 
Buonaparte, a young major of artillery, planted his bat- 
teries and drove away the ships. The city fell, and the old 
atrocities were renewed. La Vendee was surrounded by 
intrenched camps, and pierced through and through by 
"infernal columns." All opposition was crushed. France 
lay helpless. 

The Reign of Terror w T as now fairly inaugurated. The 
Jacobins, under the lead of the infamous Bobespierre, knew 
no mercy. Kevolutionary tribunals, committees of public 
safety, and the guillotine were at work in every part of 
France. Two hundred thousand persons of all ranks and 
ages crow T ded the prisons. Thence every morning the tum- 
brils carried to the place of execution the victims of the day. 
In Paris the most illustrious persons swelled the lists of the 
condemned. The crowd screamed with delight as they saw 
Marie Antoinette brought forth to the Place de la Eevolu- 
tion (October 16, 1793). Clad in white, pale and calm, no 
cries disturbed her peace as she mounted the same scaffold 
where Louis XVI. had perished." The Girondists, twenty- 
muskets and cannon. On one occasion it was told him that the number was greater 
than the list called for. "What does it signify V" was his cold reply; ''if they die 
to-day they will not die to-morrow ! " 

* In July the dauphin had been taken from his mother and placed in the care of 
one Simon, a tool of Robespierre, who spared no pains to corrupt, his character and 
destroy his health. Dressed in a red cap and coarse jacket, this innocent child of 
eight years, royally born and tenderly reared, might be seen at the window of Lis 
prison-room, flushed with wine, and shouting vile oaths and Jacobin songs to the 
laughing soldiers below. After six months Simon left him, and then, if possible, his 
condition was still more pitiable. Locked and bolted in a room alone, his young 
strength daily sinking under neglect and suffering, the long days passed without 
resource or amusement, and the evenings without glimmer of light. " His bed was 
not stirred for six months, and for more than a year he had no change of shirt or 
stockings." When at last more humane attendants were allowed, the poor boy was 



1793.] 



THE REIGN OF TERROR. 



217 



two iii number, who had lain in prison since their arrest, 
spent their last evening together in singing hymns to France, 
and, as they marched to execution, chanted the "Marseillaise," 
and died with a shout of " Vive la Kepublique." Madame 




GIRONDISTS ON THE WAY TO EXECUTION. 



Eoland fell with the rest.* Her husband, on hearing the 
news, killed himself in the highway. Bailly, the astronomer 
and mayor; Malesherbes, the illustrious minister; Lavoisier, 
the learned chemist ; De Noailles, the octogenarian marshal 
of France; and a host of others, the wisest, noblest, and 



beyond recovery, and he died in June, 1795.— After her separation from her son, Marie 
Antoinette never looked up. At two o'clock one morning she was awakened and 
ordered to the conciergerie. As she was passing through a low doorway, hurried by 
her guard, she struck her forehead a violent blow. With a momentary show of sym- 
pathy one of them asked if she was hurt. " Nothing can hurt me now," was her 
pathetic answer. 

* When she mounted the scaffold, it is said, she bowed her head toward a colossal 
tstatue of Liberty near by, and exclaimed : " O Liberty 1 what crimes are committed 
in thy name ! " , 

10 



218 EEYOLUTIONAEY FEANCE. [1793. 

best, were now hurried to the scaffold.* The saint-like 
Elizabeth, sister to Louis XVI., shared the same fate as the 
notorious Philip Egalite, whose cold-blooded vote for death 
to the king went for naught when suspicion fell upon him- 
self. In the midst of the carnage a new calendar f was in- 
stituted, to date from September 22, 1792, which was to be 
the first day of the year 1., the epoch of the foundation of 
the republic. Already the names of the streets had been 
changed, and all emblems of royalty removed. The tombs 
of the kings at St. Denis were rifled and their contents scat- 
tered to the winds. Churches and convents were desecrated, 
plundered, and burned. Worship was prohibited. Marriage 
was declared only a civil contract, which could be broken 
at pleasure. Notre Dame was converted into a Temple of 
Eeason, and a gaudily-dressed woman, wearing a red cap 
of liberty, was enthroned as goddess. Over the entrance to 
the cemeteries were inscribed the words : Death is an eternal 
she}). 

The Terrorists Divided. — Divisions now arose among 
the leaders in these atrocities. Robespierre denounced the 
Anarchists as seeking to bring ridicule on the revolution, 
and Hebert, Clootz, and others were sent to the scaffold. 
The Dantonists, who sought a return to a milder government, 
were arraigned, and Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and his 



* The work of the guillotine formed a daily entertainment, and hands of women 
gathered around it, chatting and knitting, whence they came to be called " the knit- 
ters." 

+ There were to be twelve months of thirty days each, with five complementary 
days in an ordinary and six in a leap- year. To the months were given names sig- 
nificant of the weather or the seasons. Beginning with the autumn, September 22, 
they were as follows :. Vendemiaire, vintage month ; Brumaire, fog month ; Trimaire, 
sleet month ; Nivose, snow month ; Pluvipse, rain month ; Ventose, wind month ; 
Germinal, blossom month; Floreal, flower month; Prairial, meadow month; Mes- 
sidor, harvest month ; Thermidor, hot month ; Fructidor, fruit month. Each month 
was divided into three parts, called decades. The first day of a decade was called 
Primidi ; the second, Duodi ; and so on. The last day, called Decadi, was to be a 
holiday.— Chambers. 



1794.] 



THE REIGN OE TERROR 



219 



associates, took their turn at the guillotine. Robespierre, for 
three months, was supreme. Fouquier-Tinville and the Revo- 
lutionary Tribunal were busier than ever. The accused were 
forbidden defence, and were tried en masse. To be suspected 
was equivalent to a death-sentence.* It was now proposed to 
set up the guillotine in a hall 
adjoining the tribunal, with fa- 
cilities for dispatching five hun- 
dred persons a day. 

Revolution of the Ninth 
Thermidor. — The Convention, 
seeing that Kobespierre would 
doom friends and foes alike, as 
suited his bloody caprice, formed 
a combination to impeach him. 
Robespierre attempted a defence, 
but cries of "Down with the 
tyrant ! " drowned his voice. He 

raved like a madman, supplicated for a hearing, and at last 
sunk into his seat exhausted and foaming. The night passed 
in a furious struggle. When the day had fairly dawned, Robes- 
pierre lay on a table in the Tuileries, a prisoner, self-wounded 
and insensible. Before night his head had fallen, and the 
long Reign of Terror was over (July 28, 1794). 

A Reaction now set in and milder counsels began to 
prevail. After a "desperate struggle the Jacobin club was 
broken up, the Terrorists were disarmed, and several of 
Robespierre's accomplices sent to the guillotine. Forms 
of trial were re-established and thousands of prisoners re- 
leased. The decrees of expulsion against priests and nobles 




ROBESPIERRE. 



* In the national archives of Paris is to be seen an order of execution which was 
signed in blank and afterward filled up with the names of twenty-seven persons, one 
of whom was a boy of sixteen. 



220 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1794. 

were revoked. Divine worship was restored and the Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal abolished. The young men of Paris formed 
an association known as "La Jeunesse Doree," broke open 
the Jacobin hall, and drove out its occupants. The club 
itself was finally dissolved. 

Triumph of the French Arms (1794-95).— While the 
Terrorists were sending long lines of victims to the scaffold, 
the defenders of the new republic were pouring toward the 
threatened frontiers. During the pauses of the guillotine all 
Paris accompanied the troops outside the city gates, shouting 
the Marseillaise. Carnot (no), who organized the military forces, 
recalls, by his energy and skill, the days of Louvois. In 1794 
he had half a million men in the field. Pichegrn, Hoche, 
Jourdan, Moreau, and other republican generals led them 
on to continued success. Belgium was captured, and sev- 
eral strongholds on the Rhine were taken. La Vendee, 
having arisen again, was finally pacified. A number of 
places on the frontiers of Spain, Mt. Cenis, and the passages 
of the Maritime Alps — the keys of Italy — submitted to the 
French, arms. Even winter did not stop their progress. 
Pichegrn led his troops across the Meuse on the ice, and, 
conquering Holland without a battle,* organized the Bata- 
vian Republic. Peace was made with Prussia and Spain, but 
England and Austria continued the war. 

The Day of the Sections (October 5, 1795).— It was 
now apparent that the union in one legislative house of all 
the orders in the States-General was a mistake. It was, 
therefore, decided to have a Council of Five Hundred to pro- 
pose laws, and a Council of the Ancients — composed of two 
hundred and fifty members over forty years of age — to pass 
or reject them. The executive power was to be lodged in a 

* The Dutch ships, hecoming frozen up in the Zuycler Zee, the French dragoons 
performed the unexampled feat of capturing a fleet hy a charge of horses. 



1795.] THE REIGN OF TERROR.; 221 

Directory of five persons. One of the directors and one-third 
of each council were to be changed each year. The new con- 
stitution was accepted by the people. The royalists, during 
the reaction, had gained so rapidly that they now hoped to 
carry the elections. The Convention thereupon decreed that 
two-thirds of the council should be appointed from their own 
number. The royalists, enraged at this, excited the sections 
to rise in arms. Forty thousand men prepared to march 
upon the Convention. General Barras (rah), who w T as in 
command of the defence, called to his aid Napoleon Buona- 
parte, of whose ability he had formed a high opinion at 
Toulon. The young general skilfully posted his troops about 
the Tuileries, and planted cannon raking the approaches by 
the bridges, quays, and streets in front and flank. As the 
insurgents came in range of his pitiless guns, they were in- 
stantly broken and put to flight, leaving five hundred of 
their number on the pavement. It was the last insurrection 
of the people. Their master had come, and street tumults 
were at an end. The Convention now organized the new 
government and dissolved. 

The Three Years of the Convention had been the 
most bloody and tyrannical of any in the annals of France. 
Over a million persons had perished. The great abuses 
which had afflicted the country were abolished, but at w T hat 
a cost ! Chateaux were in ruins ; towns half destroyed ; 
religious rites and observances ridiculed; churches closed 
or occupied as stables or warehouses; schools deserted; 
educated men driven off; and the youth ignorant. The tax 
returns had nearly ceased; trade and commerce were anni- 
hilated, and the treasury was empty. The issue of assignats 
reached the enormous amount of 45,000 millions of francs, 
and their value was so depreciated that " 24,000 francs w T ere 
paid for a load of wood, and 6,000 for a ride in a hack." 



222 



REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 



[1795. 



2 .— T HE DIRECTORY. 



1795 to 1799 = 4 Years. 

The Directory * contained only two men of rank — Car- 
not and Barras. Its glory, like that of the Convention, lay 
in the achievements of its armies. Carnot's plan was for 
Moreau and Jourdan to invade Germany, while Buonaparte 

was to cross the Alps into 
Italy, and all three were 
to converge on Vienna. 
Henceforth, for fourteen 
years, the life of Napoleon 
Buonaparte f is the his- 
tory of France, almost 
that of Europe. 

Campaign in Italy 
(1796-7).— When Buona- 
parte arrived in camp at 
Nice, the generals, Mas- 
sena, Augereau, Serrnrier, 
and Joubert, looked cold- 
ly on their young com- 
mander. But at their first council Massena said to Augereau : 
"We have our master." Buonaparte found his army of 
38,000 men destitute of everything, while opposed to him 
was a well-equipped body of 60,000. He did not hesitate. 

* When they entered the Luxembourg, which had been assigned for their use, such 
was the general poverty tnat they were compelled to borrow of the porter an old 
wooden table and four rush chairs in order to organize their first meeting. 

t Napoleon Buonaparte was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, August 15, 17G9, two months 
after the conquest of the island by the French. Properly speaking, he was an 
Italian. His father, Charles Buonaparte, was a respectable lawyer. We read that, 
when Napoleon was a child, his favorite plaything was a small brass cannon, and 
that he loved to drill the children of the neighborhood to fight in battle with stones 




NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE. 



1796.] THE DIRECTORY. 223 

Issuing one of those electrical proclamations for which he 
was afterward so famous, he suddenly forced the passes of 
Montenotte, and pierced the centre of the enemies' line. He 
had now placed himself between the Piedmontese and Aus- 
trians who were opposed to him, and could follow either. He 
pursued the former to within ten leagues of Turin, when the 
king of Sardinia, trembling for his crown and capital, stopped 
the conqueror by an armistice, which was soon converted into 
a peace, in which he gave up to France his strongholds and 
the passes of the Alps. 

Battle of Lodi. — Delivered from one foe, Buonaparte 
turned upon the other. At Lodi he found the Austrians, 
under Beaulieu, strongly intrenched upon the opposite bank 
of the Adda. Charging at the head of his grenadiers, amid 
a tempest of shot and ball, he crossed the bridge in front of 

and wooden sabres. At ten he was sent to the military school at Brienne. Resolute, 
quarrelsome, gloomy, not much liked by his companions, he lived apart. He was 
popular with his teachers, and became the head scholar in mathematics. At sixteen 
he went to Paris to complete his studies. Poor and proud, discontented with his 
lot, tormented by the first stirrings of genius, he became a thorough misanthrope. 
The following year ^_ 

he entered the army S. | 

as second lieuten- § $ ) 

those fascinating y '""v 

traits of character ~~ V^~~ "^ ^ -— 

for which he was 

afterward so distin- fac-simile of the signature of napoleon buonaparte, 
guished At the musee des archives nationales, paris. 

time he so suddenly 

came into view as the defender of the Directory, he was out of employment, and 
impatiently waiting for some turn in the wheel of fortune that would bring him 
to the top. A few days after the disarming of the sections, Eugene Beauharnais, a 
boy of ten years, came to Buonaparte to claim the sword of his father, who had 
fallen on the scaffold during the revolution. Touched by his tears, Buonaparte 
ordered the sword to be given him. This led to a call from Madame de Beauhar- 
nais. The beauty, wit, and grace of the Creole widow won the heart of the Corsican 
general. Their mutual friend, Barras, promised them, as a marriage gift, Buona- 
parte's appointment to the command of the army of Italy. The marriage took place 
March 9, 1796. The bride being thirty-three and the groom but twenty-seven, she 
entered her age on the register as four years younger than she was and he one year 
older. 



224 EEVOLUTIONAKY FKANCE. [1796. 

their position, and bayoneted the cannoneers at their guns. 
The Austrians fled and took refuge in the mountains of 
the Tyrol. 

Authorized Pillage. — Now commenced a system of spo- 
liation unknown to modern warfare. Not only was war to 
support war, but to enrich the victor. Contributions were 
levied upon the vanquished states. A body of savants was 
sent to Italy to select the treasures of art from each con- 
quered city. The Pope was forced to give twenty-one mil- 
lions of francs, one hundred pictures, and five hundred manu- 
scripts. The Duke of Parma was assessed two millions of 
francs and twenty pictures. The wants of the army were 
supplied, and millions of money were sent to Paris. The 
officers and commissioners seized whatever they wished — 
provisions, horses, etc. — without pay. Pavia made some little 
resistance, and was given up to pillage for twenty-four hours. 
Moreover, a swarm of jobbers, contractors, and speculators of 
all sorts, hovered about the army, and gorged themselves to 
repletion. Most of the generals acquired fortunes during 
the campaign. Napoleon alone returned as poor as when he 
went. The Italians, weary of the Austrian yoke, had at first 
welcomed the French with fetes and rejoicings, but they soon 
found that their new masters, who came as brothers, plun- 
dered them like robbers. 

Battles of Castiglione and Bassano. — Sixty thousand 
Austrians, under Wurmser, were now marching in separate 
divisions on opposite sides of Lake Garda, in order to envelop 
the French in their superior numbers. Buonaparte, throw- 
ing all his strength first to the left, checked the force on 
the western bank ; then turning to the right, routed the main 
body at Castiglione (teel-yo-na). "Wurmser, like Beaulieu, fell 
back into the Tyrol. Reinforced, he made a new essay. 
But ere he could debouch from the passes, Buonaparte 



1784.] "THE DIRECTORY. 225 

plunged into the gorges of the mountains, and fallen upon 
him at Bassano. Wurmser, shut up by the Adige on one side 
and an army in hot pursuit on the other, fled down the river, 
seeking anxiously a place for crossing. At last, by a mere 
chance, he escaped and took refuge behind the walls of 
Mantua. 

Battle of Arcole. — Owing to successes in Germany,* 
the Austrians were able to concentrate their forces on Buo- 
naparte. Two armies had already disappeared ; a third now 
arrived under Alvinzi. Leaving Verona by the southern gate, 
Buonaparte, with only 14,000 men, took the road for Milan. 
It was the route to France. Suddenly, however, turning to 
the north, he descended the Adige, crossed the river, and 
placed his army in the midst of a vast marsh, traversed only 
by two causeways. Fighting on these narrow roads, numbers 
were of no account. Augereau and Massena led the col- 
umns. At the bridge of Arcole Buonaparte, seeing his 
grenadiers hesitate, seized a banner, and exclaiming, " Fol- 
low your general," rushed forward. Lannes, while protect- 
ing him, received a third wound. An aide-de-camp dropped 
at his feet. Borne back in the arms of his soldiers, in the 
melee, he fell into the marsh, and was with difficulty rescued. 
A ford was finally found, the bridge turned, and the Aus- 
trians, half-destroyed, were put to flight. The French en- 
tered Verona in triumph by the opposite gate from that by 
which they had gone out four days before. 

Battle of Rivoli. — Alvinzi, reinforced, again descended 

* Unfortunately, Carnot ordered the armies of Jourdan and Moreau to operate 
separately. Prince Charles concentrated the Austrians on Jourdan, and beat him at 
Wurtzburg, whence he soon after recrossed the Rhine. Moreau was now left far 
advanced in the enemies' territory. Charles turned upon him, but Moreau retired 
through the Black Forest, stopping to inflict a severe lesson on his pursuers when- 
ever they appeared too near, and, after twenty-six days, reached the French frontier 
without having left behind a gun or a man. The Austrians had attempted the same 
manoeuvre as the French at the opening of the Italian war. but Prince Charles was 
not Buonaparte, neither was Moreau Beaulieu. 



226 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1797. 

into Italy. The principal army advanced in two columns, 
the infantry in one and the cavalry and artillery in the other. 
Buonaparte saw that the only point where they could unite 
was on the semicircular plateau of Rivoli. As they debouched, 
he launched Joubert and then Massena upon them. Both 
columns recoiled in inextricable confusion. Leaving Joubert 
to complete the victory, Buonaparte hurried off with the 
division of Massena* to attack General Pro vera, who was 
hastening to the rescue of Mantua. Beaten twice and hunted 
on every track like a wounded stag, Provera was forced to 
lay down his arms. Wurmser, reduced to extremity, capit- 
ulated. Having vanquished three imperial armies in Italy, 
Buonaparte now forced the Alps, and advanced to within 
seventy-five miles of Vienna. The Austrian government, in 
consternation, asked for a suspension of arms. 

Downfall of Venice. — Meanwhile insurrections had 
broken out against the French in various parts of the Vene- 
tian territory. Buonaparte took summary vengeance. Troops 
w T ere marched into the city, the government abolished, a con- 
tribution levied of 6,000,000 francs, and the usual ransom of 
pictures and manuscripts. 

The Treaty of Campo Formio f (1797) closed this 
famous campaign.;); Belgium was ceded to France, with the 
long-coveted boundary of the Rhine. A Cisalpine Republic 



* This division fought at Verona on the 13th of January, marched all that night to 
help Jouhert who was exhausted by forty-eight hours' fighting, was in the battle of 
Rivoli the 14th, and marched that night and the 15th to reach Mantua on the 16th. 
Marches, which with ordinary generals were merely the movements of troops, with 
Buonaparte meant battles, and often decided the fate of a campaign. 

t So called from a ruined castle near Udine, where it was concluded. 

% There being some delay on the part of the Austrian ambassador, Buonaparte rose 
suddenly in the midst of a conference, and, seizing a valuable vase — which was a 
present to the count from the Empress Catherine — dashed it to the floor, saying, "•In 
this way, before the end of autumn, I will break in pieces your monarchy." Bowing 
to the minister he then retired, and dispatched a courier to the archduke announcing 
that he should resume hostilities in twenty-four hours. The terrified ambassador 
followed Buonaparte, and at once accepted the conditions of peace. 



1797.] THE DIRECTORY. 227 

was formed in Northern Italy. Austria was allowed to take 
Venice and its dependencies. 

At Paris. — On Buonaparte's return to Paris the capital 
shone with a splendor not seen since the days of Louis XIV. 
The Directory, dressed in Roman costume, received him in 
the court of the Luxembourg, at the foot of the altar of his 
country. As the youthful general came forward, his pale, 
slight form, his classical figure, his modest mien, struck every 
imagination.* While the air was still ringingwith his praises, 
Buonaparte returned to his quiet home. Here he studiously 
shunned the public gaze, devoted himself to literary and 
scientific studies, and adopted a plainness of manners and 
life in striking contrast Avith the brilliancy of his late ex- 
ploits. 

Neighboring Republics. — The Directory endeavored to 
control neighboring governments as if they were French de- 
pendencies. The Assembly of Holland proving refractory, a 
military despotism was established. Insurrections were excited 
in Switzerland, the country was invaded by French armies, 
the Helvetian republic set up, and the usual rapacious con- 
tributions were exacted. The constitution of the Cisal- 
pine Republic was twice arbitrarily altered, and the people 
forced to maintain 25,000 soldiers. Naples was invaded, and 
the Parthenopean added to the list of republics. Rome was 
occupied by the army,f and a republican government created. 
Before Napoleon left Italy, Genoa and the neighboring terri- 
tory had been formed into the Ligurian Republic. At the 
close of 1798 the Directory found itself at the head of no less 

* He was presented with a standard, on which were inscribed the recent achieve- 
ments of the army of Italy: " 150,000 prisoners, 170 flags, 1,100 cannon, 67 engage- 
ments, and 18 pitched battles." 

t Never had Rome suffered such pillage as now. Not only were the palaces, 
churches, and convents robbed by the agents of the Directory, but the Vatican was 
stripped to its walls, the very clothes of the Pope sold, and the rings torn from his 
fingers. The aged pontiff himself was taken to France, where he died. 



228 



REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 



[17$ 



than six republics, which included Holland, Switzerland, and 
Italy. 

An Expedition to Egypt (1798-9) having been pro- 
posed by Buonaparte, the plan was gladly accepted by the 
Directory,* and the conqueror of Italy set sail with 36,000 
men, the heroes of Rivoli and Areola. He was accompanied 
by a numerous body of learned men, naturalists, geographers, 
artists, etc. On the way the island of Malta was taken, the 




THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. 



knights of St. John opening the gates of their fortress. 
Narrowly escaping the English cruisers under Nelson, the 
army was safely landed near Alexandria. 

Battle of the Pyramids. —Buonaparte hastened toward 
Cairo. Here the Mamelukes f had gathered to dispute his 
advance. The French, drawn up in hollow squares, facing 
outward, with the artillery at the corners and baggage at the 



* The Directory was jealous of the homage paid to Buonaparte, and distrustful of 
the part he might play in any future crisis ; while Buonaparte's ardent mind was full 
of visions of glory to be achieved in the East, the seat of ancient empire. To all this 
was added the fact that the conquest of Egypt would pave the way to a blow at the 
English supremacy in India. 

t The Mamelukes were the descendants of Caucasian slaves. Bred to military 
service, mounted on Arab steeds, and armed with Damascus scimetars, they were 
the finest horsemen in the world, and the real rulers of Egypt. 



1793.] THE DIRECTORY. 229 

centre, awaited the attack. " Soldiers ! " exclaimed Buona- 
parte, "from yonder pyramids forty centuries look down 
upon you." On came the magnificent horsemen of the 
desert, but they recoiled from the steady line of steel, while 
the rolling fire mowed them down on every side. The cap- 
ture of Cairo and the submission of Lower Egypt followed. 
Meanwhile the fleet left in the Bay of Aboukir was destroyed 
by Nelson. 

Organization of the Country. — Cut off from Europe, 
Buonaparte accommodated himself to the habits of the peo- 
ple, and rode a dromedary with the simplicity of an Arab 
sheik. He respected the religious belief of the inhabitants, 
who called him the favorite of Allah. He introduced the 
civilization and arts of the West. He established the Insti- 
tute of Cairo, in which the savants accompanying the expe- 
dition began their labors.* Desaix, "the just sultan," as the 
Arabs termed him; pushed into Upper Egypt, captured 
Thebes, and encamped beyond the cataracts of the Nile. 

Campaign in Syria. — Buonaparte now advanced into 
Syria, where he could at once protect Egypt and menace 
India and Constantinople. He crossed the desert, stormed 
Jaffa, and laid siege to Acre. Here he was checked by the 
bravery of the Turkish garrison, aided by Sydney Smith, the 
admiral of a small English fleet lying in the harbor. The 
Turks having advanced from Damascus to the relief of the 
city, Buonaparte, with Kleber and Murat, defeated them at 
the foot of Mount Tabor, with terrible slaughter. The siege 
was now renewed more fiercely than ever; but finally 
even Buonaparte's resolution gave way, and a retreat was 
ordered. 

* This proved the only permanent and valuable result of the expedition. Scientific 
men were the true conquerors of Egypt. During this occupation a French engineer 
discovered the famous "Rosetta stone"— the key to reading the Egyptian hierogly- 
phics. 



230 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1798. 

Retreat. — All the horrors of war fell upon the army 
during its retreat through the desert. Thirst, burning heat, 
and the ravages of the plague,* decimated their ranks. The 
road was strewn with those who, falling to die, with out- 
stretched arms reproached their fellows for their desertion. 
Buonaparte, dismounting, marched at the head of his men, 
sharing in their hardships and cheering them by his resolu- 
tion. Arriving in Egypt, Buonaparte almost annihilated a 
body of troops who had landed at Aboukir, thousands of 
these turbaned warriors throwing themselves into the sea 
to escape the sabres of Murat's cavalry. 

Return to France. — After the battle, negotiations were 
entered into for the exchange of prisoners. Sydney Smith 
having sent Buonaparte a package of newspapers, he spent 
all night in eagerly devouring the tidings from France. He 
saw the crisis which had arrived in its affairs — that "the 
pear was ripe," as he said — and resolved to abandon his 
brothers-in-arms and return home. Giving up the command 
to Kleber, and taking with him his favorite officers, Lannes, 
Murat, Berthier, Marmont, and Dnroc, he set sail, escaped 
as by a miracle from the English cruisers, and surprised 
Josephine by his sudden appearance at their little home in 
Paris. 

The History of the Directory during these years 
(1797-9), aside from the exploits of Buonaparte, had been 
one of little promise to the republic. The grapeshot of the 
young Oorsican on the 13thVendemiaire extinguished neither 
the Jacobins nor the Koyalists. The latter obtained a ma- 
jority in the Council of Five Hundred (1797), where they 

* At Jaffa the army rested two days. The plague was at its height. Buonaparte, 
it is said, visited the hospital and walked through the Wards, affecting a careless air 
and striking his hoots with his riding-whip as he passed. When the army left, there 
were a few patients too ill to be removed. As they would probably be murdered by 
the Turks, Buonaparte proposed to Desgenettc, the physician, to poison them. His 
noble reply was : " My art teaches me to cure men. not to kill them. 1 ' 



1797-9.] THE DIEECTOEY. 231 

elected Pichegru— an avowed friend of the Bourbons — as 
President, and Barthelemy — one of their partisans — as Direc- 
tor. Priests and emigrants returned in crowds, and Louis 
XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., already began to make his 
terms. 

Revolution of the 18th Fructidor (September 4, 
1797). — The majority of the Directory in this emergency 
resolved upon a coup cT etat* Augereau marched into Paris 
with 12,000 men and forty pieces of cannon, surrounded the 
Tuilleries, and arrested Picliegru and the leading Royalists. 
The Republican minority in the Councils hereupon rescinded 
the unfavorable elections in forty-eight departments, sen- 
tenced fifty- three deputies to transportation, together with 
two obnoxious Directors — Barthelemy and Carnot, who was 
opposed to using violence — annulled the offensive acts of 
their predecessors, and even sacrificed to their resentment 
the editors and proprietors of forty-two journals. New 
Jacobins coming in, the public exercise of the Christian reli- 
gion was forbidden, and the laws against priests and emigrants 
re-enacted in all their rigor. It was by the Directory thus 
revolutionized that Buonaparte was received on his return 
from Italy. The next year "their five majesties of the Lux- 
embourg," as the Directors were termed, again resorted to 
arms, and by a second coup cV etat (22d Floreal, May 11, 
1798), expelled from the Council the ultra-Republicans. 

Foreign Disaster had been added to domestic anarchy. 
The arrogant pretensions of the Directory and the rapid 
spread of republican principles caused a Second Coalition to 
be formed against Prance, composed of England, Russia, 
Austria, Turkey, and the two Sicilies. The campaign which 
followed had little interest. Buonaparte was in Egypt, and 

* This is a word for which as yet, happily, wc have no English equivalent. It is 
literally "a stroke-of-state."' 



232 REVOLUTIONARY TRANCE. [1799. 

the fruits of Campo Formio were quickly lost. The French 
in Italy were defeated again and again by the Austrians and 
Kussians, under the famous Suwarrow (su-or-ro), the Invin- 
cible. Elsewhere there was a gleam of success. The English 
made an inglorious failure in an attempted descent on the 
coast of Holland, while in Switzerland Massena routed the 
Eussian general Korsakoff at Zurich, and Suwarrow lost 
three-fourths of his army in trying to support his colleague. 

Condition of the Country. — The Directory, meanwhile, 
had become notoriously corrupt as well as tyrannical. Bar- 
ras, its most conspicuous member, was styled " the rotten." 
The state was on the verge of dissolution. Bands of bri- 
gands abounded. The armies driven back upon the frontier 
were in want. All respect for law seemed gone, and force 
alone was master. A panic of fear and despair seized upon 
all. A dictatorship, royalty, anything which gave promise of 
quiet and safety, was better than the ruin which seemed to 
impend. At this moment it was announced that Buonaparte 
had landed at Frejus. Enthusiastic masses met him at every 
stage of his journey to Paris. All eyes turned to him as the 
only hope of France. 

Revolution of the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). 
— For a time Buonaparte watched the turn of affairs. He 
exchanged his uniform for the costume of the Institute. 
Eefusing to identify himself with any party, he silently drew 
about him his friends. Talleyrand, minister of foreign 
affairs, was among the first to join the crowd. Sieyes,* the 
most influential of the Directors, gave himself to the task of 
arranging a new coup d' Stat. On the pretense of a Jacobin 
plot both the Councils were transferred to St. Cloud, so as to 

* "It needs, 1 ' said Sieyes, "to save France a head and a sword." He proposed to 
furnish the former; for the latter he allied himself with Buonaparte. In the sequel 
he found, as he predicted, the Corsican had hoth, saying to Talleyrand : "Nous avons 
tin maitre qui sait tout faire, qui pent tout faire, et qui veut tout faire." 



THE DIRECTORY. 



233 



be removed from the sympathy and aid of the capital. 
Buonaparte was given command of the army in Paris. 
Sieves and his colleague Ducos broke up the government b\ 
resigning their offices. The next day Buonaparte appeared 
before the Council of Five Hundred. His explanations were 
received with indignation. 
The President, his brother 
Lucien, was unable to re- 
strain the tumult. The 




BUONAPARTE BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED. 



crowd rushed forward with threatening gestures. Buona- 
parte turned pale and was borne away by his grenadiers, 
who rushed in to save their chief. The cry of outlaw was 
raised. It was the terrible cry which had ruined Eobes- 
pierre. Lucien refused to put the question to vote. Buona- 
parte sent in a platoon of grenadiers to bring out his brother, 
who, mounting a horse, harangued the troops and pronounced 
the Council dissolved. Then taking a sword, he turned 



234 EEV0LU1I0NAKY FRANCE. [1789. 

toward Buonaparte, exclaiming, " I swear to run this through 
my own brother if ever he strikes a blow at the liberties of 
the French.' 7 He was answered by a cheer. Murat at once 
led forward a column of men at a quick step. They entered 
the hall with fixed bayonets. The officers waved their swords 
and shouted " Forward ! ; ' The roll of the drums drowned 
the last cry of Vive la Eepublique. The deputies escaped at 
the windows. The revolution was achieved. As Buonaparte 
boasted, it had not " cost a drop of blood." Liberty only was 
strangled. Lucien, collecting about thirty of the Council 
who were friendly, hastened to establish a temporary govern- 
ment. Buonaparte, Sieyes, and Ducos were appointed pro- 
visional consuls, and a committee nominated to revise the 
constitution. 

The Constitution of the Year VIII. was elaborately 
contrived by Sieyes. There were to be three consuls chosen 
for ten years — Buonaparte and two others named by him. 
The laws, prepared under the order of the consuls by a 
Council of State named by the consuls and liable to be re- 
voked by them, were to be discussed by a Tribune, and 
voted or rejected by a Legislature. The 5,000,000 of electors 
in France — all persons over twenty-one years — Avereto choose 
one-tenth of their number; this tenth, a tenth of its num- 
bers; and this again a tenth. From the last list of about 
5,000 a senate was to select the Tribune and Legislature. 

Satisfaction of France. — This constitution was ratified 
by a popular vote of over 3,000,000 against 1,500. It was 
evident that, in the overthrow of the Directory and in his 
assumption of power, Buonaparte had France on his side. 
The fire of the Eevolution had died out. The people desired 
neither the ancient despotism nor Jacobinic anarchy. They 
had failed to secure anything between these extremes. Buo- 
naparte, by his splendid military success, had only hastened a 



1799.] B U K A P A 11 T E . 235 

change which was certain. "The hour had come and found 
the man." Tired of strife, France longed for a strong hand 
to steady and control the raging factions. 



3.— THE CONSULATE. . 

1799 to 1804-5 Years. 

The Consular Government. — Buonaparte now took 
up his residence in the Tuileries, where the consular court 
was established. As he entered the palace he saw a few caps 
of liberty which had been accidentally left hanging on some 
spears. " Take away that rubbish," said he. Every branch 
of government quickly felt Buonaparte's magic touch. Forced 
taxes on the rich were abolished. Provision w 7 as made for 
the payment of the debt. At the first sign of order, trade 
revived and the revenue increased. Banditti were extir- 
pated ; the churches thrown open for worship ; the law of 
hostages was repealed; the heathenish decade abolished 
and the Sabbath restored; the imprisoned priests were re- 
leased, and the laws against emigrants relaxed. The former 
intendants of departments were revived under the name of 
Prefects, who were responsible only to the First Consul. 
Within six months, confidence was restored, but all jour- 
nals opposed to him had been suppressed, and a system of 
secret police * established, to keep him informed of what 
was transpiring in all parts of France. 

War against Austria (1800). — Buonaparte at first sought 
to maintain friendly relations with the other powers of Europe. 
Austria rejected his advances, and George III. of England did 
not deign even to reply to his letter. Hostilities, therefore, 

* Fouche was the head of this department. A man of wonderful ability, hut one 
in whom Buonaparte had so little confidence that he appointed spies to watch him. 



236 REVOLUTIONARY TRANCE. [1800. 

soon broke out. Two armies were placed in the field; one 
tinder Moreau in Germany, and one under Massena in Italy. 
The former, by superior strategy, drove the Austrian army, 
under General Kray, from point to point, until he took refuge 
in an intrenched camp at Ulm. Massena, overwhelmed by 
General Melas, with superior forces, was driven, with half his 
army, behind the entrenchments of Genoa. While the two 
Austrian armies were thus detained so far distant, Buona- 
parte secretly gathered his forces on the Swiss frontier, in 
order to cross the Alps, and renew the glories of his Italian 
conquests. 

Passage of St. Bernard. — Great difficulties were ex- 
perienced in this famous undertaking. The cannon were 
dismounted, placed in hollow logs, and one hundred men 
harnessed to each. The ammunition and baggage were car- 
ried on mules. A division set off at a time, starting just 
after midnight, to avoid the avalanches. On the edge of 
precipices and amid eternal snow and ice the French soldiers 
encouraged each other with songs, and, when an almost in- 
surmountable obstacle appeared, dashed forward with cheers, 
the trumpets sounding the charge. When all difficulties 
seemed conquered, the advance was unexpectedly checked 
by the little fortress of Bard, which commanded a narrow 
pass. The infantry and cavalry forced a way along the pre- 
cipitous sides of the mountain. Straw was strewn on the 
road by night, and the artillery drawn past under the very 
guns of the fort. Other divisions crossed by Mont Cenis and 
Mont St. Gothard, and the entire army entered Milan in 
triumph. 

Battle of Marengo. — Melas was long ignorant of the 
storm gathering on the crest of the Alps. Informed that 
an enemy was in his rear, he refused to believe it. When 
he could no longer doubt, he hastily gathered his scattered 



1800.] BUONAPARTE. 237 

forces, and surprised the French in march across the fields 
of Marengo. Buonaparte was caught. Defeat seemed in- 
evitable. Desaix, however, who was miles away, heard the 
roar of the cannon. Without waiting for orders, he turned 
back with his division. On the road he met courier after 
courier urging him to hasten. As he rushed upon the field 
through the frightened fugitives, he found Buonaparte. 
" One battle is lost," said Desaix, " but there is time to win 
another." The consul rode down the lines, exclaiming: 
" Soldiers, we have gone far enough ; you know it is my 
custom to sleep on the field of battle." Desaix now charged 
upon the advancing columns of the Austrians,but fell pierced 
by a ball. At that moment Kellermann, who was hidden 
behind a vineyard, hurled his terrible dragoons on the ene- 
mies' flank. Six thousand Austrians laid down their arms in 
dismay. The rest fled. Melas was forced to retire beyond 
the Mincio, and surrender Northern Italy. Buonaparte re- 
turned to Paris, from which he had been absent only two 
months. 

Surrender of Massena. — During all this time Buona- 
parte had done nothing for Massena ; and in the pursuit of 
his own glory had left his lieutenant and his little army in 
Genoa to starve and finally surrender. For nearly two weeks 
their only food had been a few ounces daily of a miserable 
bread made of starch and cocoa, while the inhabitants lived 
on roots and grass gathered from the ramparts. Apparently 
Massena had failed, but by occupying the attention of so 
large a part of the Austrian army, he had rendered Marengo 
possible. 

Battle of Hohenlinden. — Moreau, having taken Munich, 
now advanced against the Austrians under the Archduke 
John. He at last caught them entangled in long columns in 
the gloomy forest of Hohenlinden, and beat them with great 



238 EEYOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1801. 

loss. Thence he rapidly pushed forward to the gates of 
Vienna, when the frightened monarch begged for a suspen- 
sion of arms. 

The Treaty of Luneville (1801), concluded soon after 
with Austria, was nearly identical with that of Oampo For- 
mic England, however, refused to make peace. She was 
now mistress of the sea, as France was of the land. Malta 
having surrendered to the British, communication with Egypt 
became difficult. Kleber, who had been left in command, 
was assassinated the same day that Desaix fell at Marengo. 
Menou, his successor, defeated by the English, evacuated 
the country (1801). Soon after, Pitt, the English prime 
minister, and most bitter enemy of France, retired from 
office. 

The Treaty of Amiens (1802) sheathed the sword for 
a time. England surrendered all her conquests except Trin- 
idad and Ceylon. Malta was to be restored to the Knights 
of St. John. 

Government. — "I shall now give myself to the adminis- 
tration of France," said Buonaparte. The social frame was 
broken and disjointed, but feudal shackles had been thrown 
off, land had been set free, and the nation, in general, had 
perfect confidence in its young and brilliant leader. The 
opportunity for reorganization was a rare one. Commerce, 
agriculture, manufactures, education, religion, arts and sci- 
ences, each received his careful thought. He restored the 
Catholic Church in accordance with the celebrated Con- 
cordat (1801), the Pope renouncing all claims to the lands 
confiscated by the revolution, and the government agree- 
ing to provide for the maintenance of the clergy. He 
established a uniform system of weights and measures, now 
familiar as the Metric System (November 2, 1801). He fused 
the heterogeneous and conflicting mass of laws into what is 



1806. J BUOKAPAKTE, 239 

still known as the Napoleonic Code.* He instituted a sys- 
tem of public instruction. He abolished the fantastic repub- 
lican calendar (January 1, 1806). He repaired the roads and 
built new ones, among which was the magnificent route over 
the Simplon Pass into Italy, even now the wonder of travel- 
lers. He organized the Bank of France on its present basis. 
He erected magnificent bridges across the Seine. He created 
the Legion of Honor, which was to be a means of rewarding 
distinguished merit in every department of life. 

Conspiracies. — Buonaparte, by his amazing success, had 
disappointed and enraged both the Eoyalists and the Jacob- 
ins. Both parties plotted, and the former nearly succeeded 
in an attempt at assassination (1800). A barrel of powder 
and projectiles, placed on a cart, and furnished with a slow 
match, was left in a narrow street through which it was 
known Buonaparte would go on his way to the opera. The 
explosion occurred just after he had passed. Fifty-two per- 
sons were killed or wounded. A second conspiracy (1804) 
was detected by Fouche, in which were implicated Pichegru, 
Moreau, and Cadoudal.f They were arrested. Moreau, who, 
it was found, had revolted at the idea of assassination, was, 
however, banished to the United States. Pichegru was found 
dead in prison. Cadoudal was executed. 

Duke d' Enghein. — In the course of this examination 
reference was made to a prince who was implicated in the 
plot. Suspicion fell on the Duke d' Enghein (oN-ge-on), a 
descendant of Conde the Great, then residing in Baden. 
With no evidence to support the charge, he was seized by 
Buonaparte's agents, though in a foreign country, brought to 
Paris, tried by a military commission, condemned, and shot 

* Voltaire said that a person travelling by post through France changed laws 
oftener than horses. There were at least three hundred separate systems. 

+ A Breton chief of the Chouans, already noted for his hardihood during the Ven- 
dean War. 



240 



11 EVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 



[1805. 



the same night in the fosse of the fortress of Vincemies. 
The violation of neutral territory, the mockery of a trial, the 
hour and haste of the execution, all gave to this act the 
appearance of an assassination. It aroused the most intense 
excitement throughout Europe, and remains a dark blot on 
Buonaparte's life.* 

"War with England (1805).— The prosperity and growth 
of France was a constant menace and source of jealousy to 

England; while causes of 
dissension were continually 
arising between these old- 
time foes. England at last 
refused to evacuate Malta 
according to the treaty of 
Amiens, and seized all the 
French vessels lying in 
English ports. In return, 
Buonaparte took into custo- 
dy over 10,000 English trav- 
ellers in France. The most 
extensive preparations were made for an invasion of England. 
One hundred and fifty thousand men were trained and admi- 
rably disciplined for this enterprise. A vast fleet of trans- 
ports were collected at Boulogne and other ports, where the 
troops was practiced in embarking and disembarking rapidly, 
so that within a single tide the entire flotilla could be ready 
for sea.f England was thrown into a paroxysm of alarm, 
while her coasts were thronged with camps and volunteers, 
and the Channel crowded with ships of war. 




THE CHAIR OF DAGOBERT. 



* "It was," said Talleyrand, in his cynical language, " more than a crime, it was a 
blunder." 

t A grand review of the "Army of England" was held at Boulogne. Buonaparte, 
seated in the chair of Dagobert, distributed rewards to the most deserving, amid the 
wildest enthusiasm. 



1804.] NAPOLEON I. 241 

4 .— T HE EMPIRE. 

1804 to 1814=10 Years. 

Buonaparte Becomes Emperor. — Buonaparte Lad al- 
ready been declared consul for life by the almost unanimous 
suffrages of the nation (1802). Immediately after the last 
conspiracy, he was proclaimed by the Senate emperor, under 
the title of Napoleon I. The nation, alarmed by the recent 
peril of its idolized chief, sanctioned the decree by a vote of 
over 3,500,000 against 2,500. All the European kingdoms, 
except England, Eussia, and Turkey, recognized the new 
monarch. Pius VII. himself crossed the Alps to assist in 
the coronation. Never had Notre Dame witnessed a more 
gorgeous ceremony. The Pope poured on the head of the 
kneeling sovereign the mystic oil ; but, as he lifted the 
crown, Napoleon took it from his hands, placed it on his 
own head, and afterward crowned Josephine Empress. As 
the hymn was sung which Charlemagne heard when saluted 
Emperor of the Eomans, the shouts within the walls of 
Notre Dame reached the crowd without, and all Paris rung 
with the acclamations. Crossing the Alps, the new emperor 
took at Milan the iron crown of the Lombards, and his step- 
son, Eugene Beauharnais, received the title of Viceroy of 
Italy. The Genoese territory was annexed to France. Hol- 
land and the German states along the Ehine were entirely 
under French influence. Switzerland, overawed, had pro- 
claimed Napoleon "The Grand Mediator of the Helvetic 
Confederation." The empire of Charlemagne seemed already 
revived, with its seat at Paris instead of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

A Third Coalition was now formed to resist the ambi- 
tions projects of Napoleon. It consisted of England, Austria, 
and Eussia. Napoleon, unable to get the command of the 
11 



24; 



REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 



[1805. 



Channel, gave up the project of invading England, and sud- 
denly threw his army across Prance, in order to attack the 
Austrian s before the arrival of the Russians. While he was 
thought to be still watching the white cliffs of Albion, he 
suddenly crossed the Rhine, and, throwing a " circle of iron 

and fire" about General 
Mack, compelled him to 
capitulate, with his entire 
army, at TJlm (1805). 
Within three weeks a 
force of 80,000 men 
had disappeared. Vienna 
opened its gates to the 
conqueror.* 

Battle of Auster- 
litz. — Thence Napoleon 
pushed forward to Brunnf 
against the Austro-Rus- 
sian army, under the 
Emperors Francis and 
Alexander. They advanced to the heights of Austerlitz, 
manoeuvring to outflank the French and cut off their retreat 
to Vienna. With ill-concealed joy Napoleon watched their 
forces during the whole day moving on the heights in front. 
"Before to-morrow night that army is ours," he triumphantly 
declared. In the morning, as the sun rose clear and bright. 
Napoleon rode down the lines, exclaiming: "This campaign 
must be finished by a clap of thunder." The men answered 
with a shout. Twenty-five thousand men were suddenly 
launched against the enemy's weakened centre. The height 

* Two thousand cannon were found in the arsenals. Prom the brass pieces was 
cast the column of Place VendOme, Paris. 




EMPRESS JOSEPHINE. 



t In three months the soldiers had marched 1,^00 miles. 
said they, " with our legs instead of our arms." 



"He makes us fight,' 



1805.] NAPOLEON" I. 243 

of Pratzen, the key of their position, was taken, and their 
line cut. The catastrophe was terrible. Whole divisions 
laid down their arms. Two thousand men tried to escape on 
a frozen lake, but the ice, broken by the cannon-shot which 
rained upon it, gave way, and the whole number sank with 
a cry of despair. The sun of Austerlitz saw the coalition go 
down in this crushing defeat. 

Battle of Trafalgar. — In the midst of these successes 
came news of a great disaster. The day after Mack's sur- 
render, the combined fleets of France and Spain, assembled 
to cover the expected descent on England, were attacked by 
Nelson off Cape Trafalgar, and totally destroyed. The ques- 
tion of English naval supremacy was henceforth settled, 
and Napoleon was forced to fight on land. 

The Treaty of Presburg. — Two days after "the battle 
of the three emperors," Francis came a suppliant to Napo- 
leon's tent. He was forced to surrender his Venetian spoils 
to Italy. The electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg were 
made kings, and their territories increased at the expense 
of Austria. Soon after (1806) Francis gave up the title of 
Emperor of Germany, which had existed for one thousand 
years, and assumed that of Emperor of Austria. The king 
of Naples was dethroned for having joined the coalition. 
The Russian army was allowed to return home. The king 
of Prussia,* who was awaiting the result of this campaign, 
ready to join either side, received Hanover as the price of an 
alliance with France. 

Royal Vassals and New Nobles.— Napoleon, in order 
to strengthen his power, now sought to surround France by 
royal vassals and fiefs of the empire, after the manner of 

* During a visit of the Czar at Berlin, he and Frederick William of Prussia, at the 
tomb of Frederick the Great, swore eternal hatred to Napoleon. Within a month 
William sent to congratulate the conqueror of Austerlitz. Napoleon coldly remarked ; 
kl This compliment was meant for another, hut Fortune has changed the address." 



244 EEVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1806. 

Charlemagne, his grand ideal. Seventeen states of Ger- 
many were united in the Confederation of the Rhine, in 
close alliance with France. Royalties were assigned to his 
brothers : to Louis, that of Holland ; Jerome, that of West- 
phalia ; Joseph, that of Naples. His sisters, Eliza and Pau- 
line, were made duchesses. Murat received the grand duchy 
of Berg; Berthier, the province of Neuchatel; Talleyrand, 
that of Benevento; and Bernadotte, that of Ponte-Corvo. 
Twenty-two duchies were distributed among his companions 
in arms and most deserving servants. Titles and orders were 
lavishly bestowed. A new order of nobility, which had found 
its parchments on the field of battle, was formed around the 
crowned soldier. All were fiefs of the emperor, all owed 
power to him, and depended upon him for their existence. 

War with Prussia (1806). — Prussia was restive under 
the galling yoke of the emperor. At last, discovering that 
Napoleon had secretly offered to restore Hanover to England, 
she drew the sword. A fourth coalition was formed by Prus- 
sia, Russia, England, Saxony, and Sweden. But Napoleon 
was already in Germany. The grand army soon poured 
through the defiles of Eranconia, and at Jena repeated the 
audacious exploits of Marengo and of Ulm. By cutting a 
road up the almost impassable heights of the Landgrafen- 
berg, Napoleon stole into the rear of the Prussians, who 
were expecting his advance in the opposite direction. Early 
the next morning the French broke through the mist like 
a torrent, and defeated them with fearful slaughter. Mean- 
while Davout, at Auerstadt, with only 26,000 men, barred 
the route of the Duke of Brunswick, who had 60,000. The 
marshal had orders to hold his post to the death. He did 
more. He routed the enemy. The fugitives from the two 
fields of battle mingled in the retreat and scattered over 
the country. Cities and fortresses surrendered without a 



1806.] NAPOLEON I. 245 

shot. " The dates of October were but resting-places of the 
French eagles in their flight from victory to victory." In a 
single month the conquest of Prussia was complete. Napo- 
leon entered Berlin amid the tears of the populace. He rifled 
the tomb of Frederick the Great, plundered the museums 
and galleries, and threatened to reduce the haughty nobility 
so low that they would be forced to beg their bread.* 

Berlin Decrees (1806). — Unable to meet England on the 
ocean, Napoleon determined to destroy her commerce. The 
famous decrees issued at Berlin declared the British Isles in 
a state of blockade, prohibited all trade with England, confis- 
cated the property or merchandise of British subjects, and 
forbade any vessel from an English port or colony to land in 
France. The "Continental System," as it was called, was, 
however, from the first a failure. Napoleon had no navy to 
enforce it. English goods were smuggled wherever a British 
vessel could float, often with the connivance of French offi- 
cials themselves. It is said that Manchester prints were worn 
even in the Tuileries. 

War with Russia (1807). — The Eussians taking the 
initiative, a winter campaign in Poland ensued. The battle of 
Eylau, fought amid blinding snow, was bloody but indecisive. 
It was the first contest in which Napoleon could only claim 
the field. Eeinforcements were summoned from every quar- 
ter. Eighty thousand conscripts — the third levy since the 
war began — were enrolled by the obsequious Senate. The 
Confederation of the Rhine increased its contingent. In the 
spring Napoleon renewed the struggle. The Russian General 
Beningsen having crossed the River Alle to attack the ex- 
posed corps of Marshal Lannes at Friedland, the main body 
of the French came up, and he was compelled to fight a 

* Such enormous contributions were levied, that, to raise the amount, the women 
gave up their ornaments, and wore rings of Berlin iron— since then noted in the 
patriotic annals of Prussia. 



U8 



REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 



[1809. 



Battle of Wagram. — The island was quickly fortified. 
Eeserves were summoned from Italy and the Ehine. Within 
six weeks they began to arrive, and in two days 150,000 men 
were gathered under the imperial eagles. One dark night, 
in the midst of a terrible thunder-storm, six bridges were 




THE BATTLE OF WAGRAM. 



thrown across the Danube below the island, and the morning 
found the French grouped in a dense mass on the opposite 
bank. The Austrians, abandoning the formidable but now 
useless entrenchments they had thrown up to debar the 
passage in front of Lobau, took up their position on the 
heights of Wagram. The archduke,-, attempted to cut off 
the French from the river. His powerful right wing swept 
along the Danube, driving everything before it, like chaff. 



1809.] NAPOLEON I. 249 

The cry, " The bridges are taken/' was already heard in the 
ranks. Word came to Napoleon that the rear was threat- 
ened, but he did not answer. His eye was fixed on the 
right, where Davout was to begin the attack. Suddenly 
he caught the roar of his guns. At once he ordered 
Macdonald to charge upon the centre of the Austrian line. 
Drouet (drua), with 100 guns, advanced at the gallop to 
open a path. Steadily Macdonald toiled up the hill in the 
face of a terrible fire. When he stopped at the crest and 
looked back, a windrow of bodies marked the way by which 
he had come. But he had pierced the centre. The Young 
Guard, under Reille, came to his aid. Napoleon ordered an 
instant advance along the whole line. Soon the Austrians 
were in full retreat, and Napoleon stood in triumph on the 
hills of Wagram.* 

The Peace of Vienna was more humiliating than that 
of Presburg. Napoleon exacted a territory containing 
3,400,000 inhabitants, a reduction of military power, a large 
money indemnity, the blowing up of the walls of Vienna, 
and adherence to the Continental System. 

War in Spain (1809-10). — During the campaign in 
Austria, over 300,000 French soldiers were in Spain, but 
Napoleon was not there. Jealousies, lack of co-operation, 
and the difficulties of a guerilla warfare, prevented any great 
success. Soult invaded Portugal, and occupied Oporto. 
Wellesley, being appointed to the chief command of the 
English troops, crossed the Douro in open day in the face 
of the Marshal, and at last drove him out of the country. 
Joining the Spaniards, Wellesley then defeated Joseph in the 

* Tt was such a blow as Napoleon had delivered at Austerlitz and Jena, but it 
produced no such consequences as upon those brilliant fields. The Austrians retired 
in good order. Napoleon's old veterans had perished. The conscripts and the 
strangers be now led had none of the revolutionary fire. His genius won many more 
victories after that, but he never saw another Austerlitz. 



250 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1810. 

great battle of Talavera. Soult, Ney, and Mortier coming 
up, he retreated into Portugal. The next year he fell back 
before the superior forces of Massena into the fortified lines 
of Torres Yedras. Massena remained in front of this im- 
pregnable position until starvation forced him to retire into 
Spain. His watchful antagonist instantly followed him, and 
it was only by consummate skill that the French captain 
escaped with the wreck of his army. The victories of 
Albuera and Salamanca, and the capture of Ciudad Kodrigo 
and Badajoz cost the French the peninsula south of Madrid. 
Joseph's throne was only held up on the point of French 
bayonets. 

Divorce and Marriage. — Disappointed at having no 
heir to succeed to his empire, Napoleon now committed the 
coldest and most heartless act of his reign. Josephine — to 
whom he was indebted for his first appointment to the Army 
of Italy, and no small share of his subsequent popularity; 
who had always manifested for him the most intense affec- 
tion, and who had presided over his court with singular grace 
— was divorced (1809). "With sorrowful dignity she retired 
to Malmaison. In the spring of 1810, Napoleon married the 
young Archduchess Marie Louise, daughter of the emperor 
of Austria. Pretty and amiable, she brought him no 
strength of character; while his desertion of Josephine 
cost him the sympathy of many of his people, and seemed 
an abandonment of the principles which had raised him 
to power. 

Despotism of the Napoleonic Rule. — The Pope hav- 
ing refused to continue the Continental blockade, was de- 
throned. Excommunicating Napoleon, he was seized and 
finally carried captive to Fontainebleau. " Learn," said the 
emperor to the kings, his brothers, " that your first duties 
are due to me and France." Louis, failing to execute the 



1810.] NAPOLEON I. 251 

Continental System, was forced to abdicate. The Hanseatic 
towns — Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck — the Duchy of 
Oldenburg, Holland, and the Eoman States were arbitrarily 
annexed to the empire. The Tribune, the only body in the 
French government with the right of discussion, was abol- 
ished. The Council of State, the Senate and the Legislative 
bodies were appointed by Napoleon himself and subject to 
his control. The educational system was reorganized by 
the establishment of the University of France, which em- 
braced every school in the country, and the officers of which 
were responsible to him alone. The press was subjected to 
the severest censorship. No news could be published, unless 
it had already appeared in the Ifoniteur, a journal exclu- 
sively under his control. The ordinary tribunals were too 
slow, and Napoleon summarily imprisoned or exiled those 
who incurred his displeasure. Many of the best writ- 
ers, as Madame de Stael and Chateaubriand, fled to escape 
his vengeance. The prisons were rilled with persons arrested 
by processes as arbitrary as the old Icttres de cachet. 

Glory of the Napoleonic Rule. — The French Empire 
now comprised 130 departments and 50 millions of people. 
It was surrounded by a cordon of dependent kings and 
nobles. Bernadotte, a French marshal, had been elected 
king of Sweden. The Continental blockade was acknowl- 
edged over the entire continent. Paris was adorned by such 
structures as the Madeleine and the Arch of Triumph — 
which are to-day the admiration of travellers, and render 
that city the most beautiful in the world. Vast improve- 
ments were made in all parts of the country. Canals, roads, 
quays, bridges, palaces, public buildings, museums, fountains, 
betokened the wisdom of his administration. The birth of a 
son — proclaimed King of Kome in his cradle — seemed to 
have set the seal on Napoleon's fortune. 



252 



REVOLUTIONARY FEAICE. 



[1810. 



Perils of the Napoleonic Rule.— The storm destined 
to overwhelm all this greatness was fast gathering. The 
peninsula was devouring his best soldiers. The prestige of 
his invincibility was gone. The superb strategy of Welling- 
ton had kindled 
hopes of at last stay- 
ing the tide. Ger- 
many was drawing 
together, and secret 
societies were form- 
ing at every point to 
resist the hated in- 
vader. The Conti- 
nental System had 
caused frightful distress in every commercial city, checked 
trade and commerce, deprived the people of the conveniences 
of life, and awakened general discontent. Almost every fam- 
ily on the Continent secretly wished for the overthrow of his 
vexatious tyranny. In France the Austrian marriage was 
unpopular, f Taxation and bankruptcies had enormously in- 
creased. The conscription had anticipated the regular 




THE MADELEINE. 



* This magnificent edifice was the special pride of Napoleon, who intended it as a 
Temple of Fame, in honor of the Grand Army. It is alleged that it was secretly de- 
signed as an expiatory monument to the memory of Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, 
and other victims of the Revolution ; hut popular passion ran so high at the time that 
Napoleon did not consider it prudent to announce it as such. It was not thoroughly 
completed until the reign of Louis Philippe. The hailding is surrounded by fifty- 
two Corinthian columns, fifty feet high. The entablature is highly decorated with 
sculptures, and the beautiful bronze doors are second only to those of St. Peter's at 
Rome. The interior is profusely ornamented with specimens of the choicest paint- 
ing and statuary. 

+ Napoleon's cruel divorce from Josephine, and subsequent marriage with Marie 
Louise, have been warmly defended by many of his English and American apol- 
ogists. It is claimed as a noble illustration of his strength of character and his 
unselfish devotion to France, showing that he was thus capable of sacrificing even 
his most sacred affections on the altar of his country? No such patriotic impulse, 
however, prompted Napoleon to this step. He shrewdly thought, that a marriage 
with a member of one of the royal families of Europe would disarm the hostility of 
the others. 



1812.] NAPOLEON I. 253 

growth of the nation,* and boys filled the army. Napoleon's 
policy of treating other nations had rendered it necessary 
that either France should conquer all Europe, or Europe 
should conquer France. To rest was to totter. He dared 
too much and fell. 

War with Russia. — The w r arm friendship between 
Napoleon and Alexander had long since cooled. New 
causes of disagreement now arose. Alexander, bitterly re- 
senting the injury done his brother-in-law, Duke Oldenburg, 
(page 251) opened his ports to English, and closed them to 
French goods. Eussian troops began to collect along the 
frontiers. Bitter recriminations followed. Meanwhile the 
overbearing demands of Napoleon and the actual invasion 
of Sweden, forced Bernadotte to appeal to Alexander for 
help. War became inevitable. Napoleon madly resolved 
to invade Eussia. 

Invasion of Russia. — In the spring of 1812, armies, 
magnificently equipped and disciplined, from all nations 
subject to Napoleon's sway, French, Austrians, Prussians, 
Poles,f Italians, Germans, Swiss, and even Spaniards and 
Portuguese, thronged the roads leading to the rendezvous in 
Poland. There were 640,000 infantry, 60,000 horse, and 
over 1,200 pieces of cannon. At Dresden, Napoleon held 
court for some weeks. Monarch s waited in his ante- 
chamber ; while queens were Marie Louise's maids of honor. 
He crossed the Niemen (June 14). The Eussians retired as 
the French advanced, clouds of Cossacks cutting off strag- 

* "Natural death for a Frenchman had become that on the field of battle. In one 
year, 1,100,000 soldiers were drafted from a population already exhausted by 3000 
combats." The standard of height was reduced to five feet. 

t Large numbers of Poles enlisted in Napoleon's army led by ardent hopes that he 
would restore the ancient independence of their country. At Wilna a deputation 
met him, and urged him to take this step. He was, however, withheld by fear of 
his Austrian and Prussian alliances. Many attribute his ultimate failure to this 
mistake. 



254 KEVOLUTIOHAKY FKAKCE. [1812. 

glers and foraging parties, destroying crops, burning towns, 
and rendering the country a desert. But Napoleon pushed 
on, constantly pursuing an ever-receding victory. At Boro- 
dino, the Eussians made a stand. After a fearful struggle 
the French only gained possession of the battle-field, the 
Eussians retreating in good order. The loss on both sides 
was over 75,000. Forty-seven French generals were wounded. 
Eight days afterward, the vanguard from the heights of 
Mt. Salutation caught sight of the gilded domes of Moscow. 
To their surprise they found it deserted. The next night the 
Eussians fired the city in a thousand places. It soon became a 
sea of flames, swept by the wind. Nearly all Moscow sank 
into ashes. The French had found a new Spain under 
the pole. 

The Retreat. — Weeks were now wasted in useless nego- 
tiations. The blackened ruins of the city furnished no 
supplies. Famine was making sad havoc in the ranks of the 
army. Dread forebodings filled the hearts of all. The cold 
winds of a Eussian winter were already beginning to blow. 
To advance was impossible. France was 3,000 miles away, 
yet retreat was the only alternative. Eeluctantly the Em- 
peror yielded and Moscow was evacuated. The rear-guard 
blew up the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the Moscovite 
emperors. "Your war is ended, ours is about to begin," 
said old Kutusoff, the Eussian general. Cold set in earlier 
than usual. The mercury suddenly sank to zero. The sol- 
diers, unused to the rigors of the north, died as they w T alked ; 
they perished if they stopped to rest. Hundreds lay down 
by the fires at night, and never rose in the morning. The 
horses failing, the cannon were abandoned and the cavalry 
dismounted. Wild Cossack troopers hovered about the rear, 
and hidden by the gusts of snow, dashed down upon the 
blinded column, with their long lances pierced far into the 



1812.] 



NAPOLEON I. 



255 




line, and ere the 
French with their 
stiffened fingers 
could raise a mus- 
ket, the Tartars, 
dropping at full 

THE RETREAT FROM MOSCOW. ldlgth Oil the backs 

of their ponies, vanished in the falling sleet. At Krasnoi, 
Napoleon himself charged with the Old Guard. At the 
crossing of the Beresina, the bridges were broken down, 
while the rear-guard was still fighting the enemy. Thou- 
sands were drowned, thousands fell under the Russian sabres, 
and thousands were made prisoners. At Smorgoni, Napoleon 
gave up the command to Murat, and in disguise set off for 
Paris. All idea of discipline was now lost. The officers hid 
their eagles in their haversacks, or buried them in the 
ground. The army rapidly dissolved into a mass of straggling 
fugitives. Ney alone, " The bravest of the brave," with the 
rear-guard, fighting, gun in hand, kept back the pursuers, 
and was the last of the Grand Army to leave the Russian 



256 EEVOLUTIOKAEY FRANCE. [1813. 

territory. Scarce 50,000 escaped over the Niemen, the shat- 
tered wreck of the mighty host which had crossed it only 
six months before. 

Uprising of Europe. — "The flames of Moscow were 
the funeral pyre of the empire." Northern Germany rose 
as by an inspiration. - A sixth confederation against French 
domination was formed of Bussia, Prussia, England and 
Sweden. France, though cruelly stricken, strained every 
nerve to meet the crisis. Old soldiers were called out, the 
National Guards ordered into the ranks of the regular army, 
and the conscription of the next year anticipated. Half a 
million men were thus gathered about the eagles. Again 
Napoleon took the field (1813). Successful at Liltzen and 
at Bautzen, his star seemed about to emerge once more from 
the threatening clouds. An armistice and a Peace Con- 
gress at Paris gave the allies time for preparation. Austria 
now threw her sword in the scale. France stood alone 
against all Europe in arms. After a two-days battle at 
Dresden, the allies were defeated. The coalition seemed 
overcome. But where Napoleon was absent was utter failure. 
Macdonald was conquered in Silesia ; Ney, near Berlin ; Van- 
damme, at Kulm ; and Soult, at Vittoria ; while Wellington, 
having crossed the Bidassoa (Oct. 7), flushed with victory, 
set foot on French soil. 

Battle of Leipsic (Oct. 18). — The allies, now certain of 
success, converged from all sides. Napoleon fell back to 
Leipsic. Here was fought the " battle of the nations," the 
greatest struggle of modern times. For three days, under 
the walls of this beautiful city, Napoleon, fairly brought to 
bay, struggled against enormous odds. At last the Saxons 
and the Wurtembergers deserted in the heat of the contest, 
and turned upon Napoleon their cannon charged with 
French bullets. The ammunition began to fail. A retreat 



1813.] NAPOLEON I. 257 

was ordered across the Elsfcer. All at once the single bridge 
by which the troops were passing was blown up. Twenty 
thousand men fell into the enemy's hands.* One-fifth only 
of the army escaped across the Khiiie. 

Dissolution of Napoleon's Empire. — The gigantic 
empire which Napoleon had created by military force, now 
rapidly crumbled to pieces. The French yoke was thrown 
off everywhere. The Confederation of the Rhine was dis- 
solved. The garrisons left in Germany surrendered. The 
kingdom of Westphalia ceased to exist. Hanover reverted 
to England. Holland recalled the Stadtholders. Murat, 
hoping to save his crown, offered to join Austria against 
France. ' Eugene fought for existence in Italy. A million 
soldiers, Austrians, Prussians, Russians, English, Swedes, 
Spaniards, closed in upon their prey. The emperor found 
himself fighting, not for glory and conquest, but for the 
sacred soil of France. The field of battle which in 1812 
had reached to Moscow, in 1813 shrunk back to Dresden 
and in 1814 was at Paris. The allies, hoping to separate the 
emperor from the nation, proclaimed that they fought not 
'the French, but Napoleon. The effect was evident. To 
many they seemed not enemies, but liberators. At this mo- 
ment of peril, the Legislature stopped to exclaim against 
Napoleon's despotism and the war. In the hour of prosper- 
ity the emperor had sacrificed the interests of France to his 
ambition, and in the hour of his peril she left him alone. 

Invasion of France (1814). — The English and Spanish 
advanced from the south ; 80,000 Austrians approached the 
Alps on the south-east; as many Swedes and Germans under 
Bernadotte menaced Belgium ; two great armies under 
Bliicher and Schwartzenberg poured along the Seine and 

* The gallant Poniatowski cut his way to the river, hut. the current hore him off, 
and he perished. 



258 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1814. 

Marne. Napoleon, with only 60,000 young conscripts, took 
the field against the latter two. Never did he display such 
genius, such profound combinations, such fertility of resource. 
Marching great distances by night, through by-roads and 
amid mud and rain, he seemed everywhere present. He 
headed every advance, and dashing from one army to an- 
other, dealt swift, terrible, and unexpected blows. In one 
month he had fought fourteen battles, and gained twelve 
victories; while the invading armies had fallen back, and 
Schwartzenberg asked for an armistice. Even now, Napoleon 
might have secured peace by consenting to retire to the 
ancient boundaries of France. But all or nothing, was his 
motto. Napoleon, however, could not be everywhere present. 
Eugene was driven out of Italy; Maison evacuated Bel- 
gium ; Augereau surrendered Lyons ; Wellington entered Bor- 
deaux, and Louis XVIII. was proclaimed. The end was 
near. Napoleon suddenly threw his army in the rear of the 
allies to gather up the garrisons left behind, and then fall on 
his enemies, as on Melas at Marengo. They paused for a 
moment amazed by this daring manoeuvre. A letter from 
Talleyrand assured them, " You venture nothing, when you 
may safely venture everything." 

Capture of Paris. — Bliicher and Schwartzenberg at 
once united their forces, and rapidly advanced on Paris. 
Marmont with a few troops fought a brief, bloody battle un- 
der its walls. The city surrendered. The next day the 
allied emperors defiled through the boulevards at the head 
of their armies. The fickle mob received them with shouts 
of " Long live the Emperor Alexander ! " " Long live the Em- 
peror of Austria ! " The senate declared that Napoleon had 
forfeited the crown, and the Bourbons were restored to the 
throne. 

Abdication of Napoleon. — Meanwhile Napoleon was 



1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 259 

hurrying with breathless speed to the defence of his capital. 
When only ten miles away, he received the fatal news. All 
thought of resistance was vain. He submitted to his fate, 
and abdicated the throne. In the court of the palace at 
Fontainebleau, he bade an affecting farewell to the veterans 
of the Old Guard, and set out for the Island of Elba, which 
had been assigned for his residence.* 

Summary. — I. — The States-General forces the coronets and mitres 
to join it, and declares itself the National Assembly. Louis closes the 
hall and places bayonets at the door ; the deputies reply by the Tennis- 
Court oath. The tiers- etat, which had so long been nothing, becomes 
everything. Troops collect ; Neckar is dismissed, and the mob rises. 
The Bastille is taken and its dungeons are razed to the ground. The 
National Guards are formed. A swarm of women crying ' ' Bread ! 
Bread ! " march upon Versailles, and take back the royal family to 
Paris. France is divided into departments, titles are abolished, church 
property is forfeited and assignats are issued. Louis in vain attempts to 
flee. The Marseillaise is heard in Paris. The Jacobins bring the mob 
into the Tuileries, and force the king to put on the red cap. The 
Prussians invade France, but instead of saving the king, hasten his 
fall. The army revolts ; the Swiss guards are massacred ; the Tuile- 
ries is sacked, and Louis sent to the Temple. The Jacobin and Corde- 
lier clubs become supreme. Danton, Marat and Bobespierre acquire 
an infamous celebrity. The prisons of Paris are emptied by paid 
assassins. France is declared a republic. Louis dies on the scaffold. 
Europe rises in vengeance. La Vendee revolts for God and the king. 
The Reign of Terror begins. The Girondists perish. Revolutionary 
tribunals and committees of public safety are hard at work. The 
guillotine reaps a rich harvest of the best blood of France. Noyades 
and fusillades help on the work of death. A new calendar is devised ; 
Christianity is abolished ; death declared an eternal sleep, and the 
Sabbath is no more. At last the revolution turns upon itself. The 
hands of a young girl have already prostrated Marat. Now Danton's 
and Robespierre's heads fall. A just God works the punishment of 
wicked men through the reaction of their own crimes. A million per- 
sons have perished in this grand carnival of crime. 

* His imperial consort shook him off as she would a disagreeable dream, -while his 
discarded plebeian wife, refused the privilege of sharing in his banishment, died of 
a broken heart at the ruin of her Cid. The widow of Napoleon afterward appeared 
at the Congress of Verona leaning on the arm of Wellington, and sank at last into 
the degraded wife of her own chamberlain.— (Alison.) 



260 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789-1815. 

II. — The Directory is formed. Buonaparte pitilessly subdues the 
last insurrection of the people. Henceforth the sword triumphs. The 
life of Buonaparte is now the history of France, almost of Europe. 
He goes to Italy, scatters the Austrian armies at Lodi, Arcole, Rivoli ; 
captures Mantua ; sweeps northward, and fifty leagues from Vienna 
dictates the peace of Campo Formio. Panting for Eastern empire, he 
crosses to Egypt, defeats the Mamelukes under the shadow of the 
Pyramids, and the Turks at the foot of Mt. Tabor ; but Sidney Smith 
at Acre robs him of his destiny. He comes home, routs their " majes- 
ties of the Luxembourg," scatters the council of five hundred at the 
point of the bayonet, and makes himself first consul. England, 
Austria, and Russia continue the war against him. He climbs the 
Alps and overwhelms the Austrian s on the plains of Marengo, while 
Moreau wins the battle of Hohenlinden. Peace comes again. A con- 
cordat is negotiated with the Pope ; bells ring on the Sabbath once 
more, and the emigrants return home. The Code Napoleon, the Legion 
of Honor, the Madeleine, the Arch of Triumph, illustrate the domestic 
administration of the consulate and the empire. 

III. — The Pope comes to Paris to crown Napoleon. The lieutenant 
of artillery becomes the Emperor of France. Europe refuses to 
acknowledge him. English gold and Pitt's energy combine the oppo- 
sition. From the heights of Boulogne he suddenly throws his army 
across France, and captures the astonished Mack at'Ulm. Russia and 
Austria both go down together on the day of Austerlitz, and the peace 
of Presburg sanctions the empire, as that of Campo Formio had his 
generalship, and Luneville, the consulate. The English, however, 
triumph at Trafalgar. Napoleon establishes a chain of tributary king- 
doms, and parcels out western Europe at his will. Prussia revolts at 
his tyranny, but disappears for years on the battle-field of Jena. Russia 
is beaten at Eylau and Friedland, and the treaty of Tilsit cements the 
friendship of the two emperors. The Berlin and Milan decrees estab- 
lish a continental blockade against English commerce. Blinded by 
ambition, Napoleon seeks to gain possession of the throne of Spain. 
Wellington, at the head of the British, arrests the French eagles in 
their flight. Austria rises again. The bridges being swept away, 
Napoleon is defeated for the first time at Aspern, but wins the battle 
of Wagram and conquers the peace of Vienna. The papal states are 
annexed to France. The Pope excommunicates the emperor whom he 
crowned, but is himself carried captive to Fontainebleau. Napoleon 
divorces Josephine and weds the daughter of the Csesars. Spain and 
Portugal are flooded with troops, but the lines of Torres Vedras stay 
the tide. Napoleon invades Russia with more than a half million of 
men, conquers at Borodino, and enters Moscow. But the Russians fire 
their capital and force him to retreat. The snow and wind, more ter- 



1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 261 

rible than the Cossacks, wrap his famished army in their winding-sheet. 
Only the phantom escapes the icy grasp of the Russian winter. The 
beaten conqueror gathers a new army of conscripts, but at Leipsic — 
the battle of nations — is driven back, flees to France, and collects a 
handful of men for the final struggle. Over a million of foes swarm 
in on every side. He strikes now here, now there, and holds them 
back, but makes a false move, the allies capture Paris ; he resigns. 
The little island of Elba is all that is left him of the empire that 
stretched from the Mediterranean to the Baltic. 

Manners and Customs. — During the Reign of Terror the theatres 
and places of amusement in Paris were kept open as usual and well 
attended. The close of that bloody period was signalized by balls 
called The Balls of the Victims, where they " danced to the memory of 
the dead," only those being admitted who had lost relatives by the 
guillotine, or had narrowly escaped it themselves. " After the 9th 
Thermidor nothing was more common than for the accuser and the 
accused, the executioner or the assassin and the daughter of the 
murdered father to meet together in the same company. The most 
ferocious men of the time waltzed with the niece of their old seigneur ; 
their hands, still stained with the blood of her relations, would press 
hers most affectionately. What they had been was all forgotten in 
what they now were ; — the past was thrust aside in order to fly on the 
wings of the present." (Secret Memoirs of the Empress Josephine.) 
A favorite play in fashionable circles was Tlie Play of the Guillotine, in 
which a light sliding fire-screen was made to fall on the neck of one 
or more of the party in imitation of the terrible knife. Then they 
all laughed and shouted, ' II n'etait que cela, rien que cela ! ' (It was 
only that, nothing but that.) — The Reign of Terror was succeeded by a 
reign of luxury. The middle classes, grown rich by speculations in 
the spoils of a crushed aristocracy and in the necessities of the army, 
brought out their long-concealed gains, and plunged into an excess of 
dissipation. Apartments were furnished in gorgeous style, and the 
prices of articles of luxury rose enormously. " Brilliant soirees, ele- 
gant supper parties, balls, theatres, cards and excitements of every 
kind effaced the horrors that had gone before. To the red caps, the 
rags and the sabots of the revolutionists, succeeded the graceful cos- 
tumes of classic antiquity. Beautiful citizenesses put into requisition 
the glittering fillets, the scarlet and amber tunics and the fairy sandals 
of the maids of ancient Greece. The men plaited their hair upon 
their temples, and confined it at the back with a comb, carried bou- 
quets at their button-holes, wore two watches, affected cloths and 
linens of the finest quality, and called themselves the Golden Youth 
of France." — (Miss Edwards.) With the consulate, new styles and 
fashions came in, and republican deformities were gradually wiped 



262 REVOLT TIONAEY FRANCE. [1789-1815. 

out. Classic names and costumes disappeared, and everything assumed 
a military hue in honor of the new power who moulded all things to 
his will. As to Napoleon, nothing seemed beneath his notice. His 
criticisms extended to the color of a livery, or the cut of a court-dress. 
He revived the use of silk stockings and reestablished the opera balls. 
In matters of etiquette he was very punctilious. Having caused an 
exact account to be drawn up of all the ceremonies which were in use 
at the courts of Louis XV. and XVI., he commanded their scrupulous 
observance. In his promotions, however, he always regarded merit 
rather than high birth. His court and camp blazed with commanders 
who had risen from a humble station in life. There was Hoche, whose 
father was an under-groom in the royal stables at Versailles, and who 
received his first education from his aunt, a j)oor woman who kept a 
fruit-stall ; he became minister-of-war and a central figure in fashion- 
able favor. Murat's father was an innkeeper, and he, himself, a waiter 
in a restaurant ; his brilliant feats of arms caused Napoleon to de- 
signate him as his "right hand," and to give him for a bride his 
sister Caroline. Kleber, the son of a garden laborer, was raised from 
a private to be a general of division. Massena, once a ship-boy, died a 
peer of France. Augereau was the son of a tradesman : he became 
peer and marshal of France. — Josephine was not so severe in matters 
of etiquette as the emperor. Her affability, grace and beauty charmed 
every one. Her taste in dress was exquisite, and she led the luxurious 
fashions of the new day. At the same time, she delighted in the sim- 
ple pleasures of life. On her little farm at Malmaison she had a flock 
of merino sheep of which she was especially fond. Under her care 
this little retreat assumed a new creation. The choicest of flowers 
and plants adorned her gardens, and such was her knowledge of 
botany that when her gardener was at a loss for the name of a new or 
rare flower, he went to her for information. — Napoleon's habits in eat- 
ing and sleeping were peculiar. He rarely slept over two or three hours 
at a time, taking his rest day or night, as most convenient. Fifteen or 
twenty minutes at table was his limit, and when he rose, all his guests 
must also rise and retire. Those who dined with him for the first time 
were obliged to go hungry ; those who knew his habits, provided 
themselves an extra meal accordingly. On the marriage of Prince 
Eugene at Munich, two hundred guests were invited. The emperor's 
table was in the shape of a horseshoe, and overlooked that of the 
guests, illuminating it with the glitter of diamonds and splendid chan- 
deliers. " It being a day of great pomp, Napoleon remained with his 
guests a quarter of an hour, and then went to Josephine and gave 
orders that the company should retire. The order was given before 
the table was filled or napkins unfolded. The good Germans were 



1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 263 

utterly surprised. They expected a splendid repast, but were com- 
pelled to go and sup at home." (Secret Memoirs of Empress Josephine.) 



References for Reading. 

Alison's History of Europe— the French Revolution.— Freeman's Eistorical Course 
—the French Revolution (The Appendix contains an excellent resume of reading on 
this subject, by President White, which every student should examine).— Lamarline's 
History of the Girondists.— Carlyle's, Mignet's, Macfarlane's, Redhead's, Michelet's, 
Thiers' 1 s and Von SybeVs Histories of the French Revolution— Lanfrey 's History of 
Napoleon. —Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution.— Lewis' 's Life of Robes- 
pierre. — Adams's Democracy and Monarchy in, France (excellent and discriminating). 
— Dickens's Tale of Two Cities (Fiction) .— Thiers' s Consulate and Empire.— Memoirs 
of Madame Campan and of Madame Roland.— Erckmann-Chatrian's Blockade, 
Conscript, Waterloo, &c. (Fiction). The Student's Hume's History of England, 
pp. 691-2 (Description of the lines of Tories Vedras). — Creasy' s Decisive Battles 
(Valmy).— Abbott's, HazliWs, Scott's and Jomini's Lives of Napoleon ; Goodrich's 
Court of Napoleon.— Headley's Napoleon and his Generals.— Ireland's Anecdotes of 
Napoleon.— Williams's Napoleon Dynasty.— Reeve's Royal and Republican France.— 
Smyth's Lectures on the French Revolution— Faine's Rights ofMan.—Russel's Essay 
on the Cause of the French Revolution.— Mackintosh's Defence of the French Revolu- 
tion.— Le Plularque Frangais and Galerie Francaise.— Napier's Peninsular War — 
Davies's Recollections of Society in France.— Challice's Illustrious Worn en of France- 
Tales of the French Revolution.— Citoyenne Jacqueline or a Woman's Lot in the French 
Revolution.— Madame Junot's (the Duchess D'Abrantes) Memoirs of Napoleon, his 
Court and Family. 



Events of the Revolution in Chronological Order. 

PAGE 

1739. Meeting of the States-General, May 5. National As- 
sembly, June 17. Tennis-Court oath, June 20. Capture 
of Bastille, July 14. Abolition of Feudal privileges, 
August 4. Mob at Versailles, October 5-6 . . . 199-205 

1790. Assignats issued, April 1. Fete of the Federation, 

July 14 208 

1791. Death of Mirabeau, April 2. Flight of Louis, June 20. 
Legislative Assembly, October 1 , 207-8 

1792. War against the Empire, April 25. Mob invades the 
Tuileries, June 20. First Coalition against France. 
Swiss Guards massacred, August 10. Prisoners mas- 
sacred, September 2-6. Battle of Valmy, September 20. 
The Convention, and the Republic declared, September 

21. Battle of Jemmapes, November 6 . . . . 209-13 

1793. Execution of Louis XVI., January 21. Eevolutionary 
Tribunal, March 10. Battle of Neerwinden, March 18. 
Committee of Public Safety, May 27. Girondists over- 



264 [REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789-1815. 



thrown, June 2. Reign of Terror. Assassination of 
Marat, July 13. Uprising of La Vendee. Execution 
of Marie Antoinette, October 16. Fall of Toulon, De- 
cember 19 . . . 214-18 

1794. Death, of Hebert, Cloots, and Danton, April 6. Robes- 
pierre triumphant. Battle of Fleurus, June 28. Execu- 
tion of Robespierre, July ^8 ..... . 218-19 

1795. Battle of Nimeguen, January 11. Day of the Sections, 
October 5 (13th Vendemiaire) 220 

1796. The Directory. Battles of Lodi, May 10 ; Castiglione, 
August 5 : Bassane, September 8 ; and Arcole, No- 
vember 14 222-5 

1797. Battle of Rivoli, January 14. Capitulation of Mantua, 
February 2. Revolution of 18th Fructidor (September 4). 
Treaty of Campo Formio, October 17 . . . 225-6 

1798. Expedition to Egypt. Battle of Pyramids, July 21. 
French fleet destroyed, August 1. Siege of Acre. 
Battle of Mt. Tabor, April 16. Revolution, 22d Floreal 

(May 11). Battle of Aboukir, July 11 .... 226-30 

1799. Revolution of 18th Brumaire (November 9). The Con- 
sulate 232-5 

1800. Battle of Marengo, June 14. Battle of Hohenlinden, 
December 2 235-7 

1801. Treaty of Luneville, February 9. Concordat signed, 

July 15 238 

1802. Treaty of Amiens, March 27. Legion of Honor estab- 
lished, May 19. Napoleon consul for life, August 2 . 238-40 

1803. Code Napoleon promulgated, March 21 ... 239 

1804. Execution of Duke d'Enghien, March 21. The Empire. 
Napoleon proclaimed emperor, May 18 .... 241 

1805. Surrender of Ulm, October 20. Battle of Trafalgar, 
October 21. Battle of Austerlitz, December 2. Treaty 

of Presburg, December 26 ...... 243 

1806. Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, October 14. Berlin 
Decrees, November 21 244-5 

1807. Battles of Eylau, February 8 ; and Friedland, June 14. 
Peace of Tilsit, July 7. Invasion of Portugal . . 245 

1808. War in Spain. Battle of Vimeira ; August 21 . . . 246-7 

1809. Death of Moore, January 16. Battles of Aspern, May 

20 ; Wagram, July 6 ; and of Talavera, July 28 . . 247-8 

1810. Marriage with Marie Louise, April 2. English retreat 

to lines of Torres Vedras, October 9 .... 250 

1811. Battle of Albuera, May 16 250 



1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 265 



1812. Invasion of Russia. Battles of Salamanca, July 22 ; 
Borodino, September 7. Moscow taken, September 15. 
Retreat began, October 10 253-5 

1813. Battles of Liitzen, May 2 ; Bautzen, May 20-1 ; Vittoria, 
June 21; Dresden, August 26-7; and Leipsic, October 

16-18 255 

1814. Invasion of France. Capture of Paris, March 30. Ab- 
dication of Napoleon, April 11 257-9 



distinguished Names of the First Half of the 
Nineteenth Cent my. 

Guizot (1788-1875), a philosophical historian and a politician of the highest rank. 
His best known work is the " History of Civilization in Europe.'" 

Madame de Siael (1766-1817), daughter of Neckar, centre of a circle composed 
of the ablest scholars of her day ; wrote " Corinna " and " Germany." 

Chateaubriand (1768-1848), a skeptic who, touched by his dying mother's pray- 
ers " wept and then believed." Visited America in 1791, and dining with Washing- 
ton said he felt " warmed and refreshed by it the rest of his life." His great works 
are "The Genius of Christianity," " Atala Rene," and " Martyrs." 

Zamartine (1790-1869), a poet, historian and politician, and excelled as each. 
"History of the Girondists," and "History of the French Revolution." 

Mignei, Thiers, Thierry, Sismondi, Michelel, and Martin are standard 
historians of France. 

Cousin (1792-1867) a metaphysician, author of " The True, the Beautiful, and 
the Good." 

virago (1786-1853), a philosopher who did much to popularize science. With 
Gay-Lussac founded the " Annales de Chiniie et de Physique." 

Gay-Zussac (1778-1850), with Biot made the first balloon ascension for scientific 
purposes : proved that the air at a great height has the same composition as at the 
surface of the earth ; and discovered the law by which gases expand uniformly by 
an increase of temperature. 

Fresnel (1788-1827), a physical optician of great renown, invented a system of 
light-house lamp-lenses called by his name. 

Hugo (1802 ), a poet and a novelist. His " Les Miserables " and " The 

Toilers of the Sea " are most popular. 



266 EEVOLUTIONAEY FRANCE. [1814. 

II, THE RESTORATION. 

1814 to 1821 = 7 Years. 

Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., set out from his 
residence near London, to take possession of the throne of 
his ancestors, on the same day that Napoleon bade adieu to 
Fontainebleau. He entered Paris* amid the acclamations 
of the royalists, while the masses looked on in wondering 
silence. By the treaty of Paris, France resumed very nearly 
the old boundaries of 1792. A constitution was granted, 
making the government very like that of Great Britain. It 
provided for a king, a cabinet of ministers, chambers of peers 
and deputies elected by duly qualified voters — freedom of 
the press, liberty of conscience, and equality of taxation. 
The new monarch, bulky of figure, tormented by the gout,f 
and feeble with age, was unable to carry out his own well- 
intentioned measures. In his weakness he only wished for 
rest and quiet. The government was therefore largely con- 
trolled by his brother, the Count d'Artois,J who ignored all 
the convulsions of the Revolution, and aimed to restore the 
good old times. 

The Bourbons during their exile had "learned nothing, 
forgotten nothing." Louis declared himself king by divine 
right ; signed his ordinances after the formula of Louis XIV., 
" for such is our good pleasure ; " abolished the tricolor and 
replaced the white cockade ; dated his charter in 1814 as the 
nineteenth year of his reign, and declared that he bestowed 

* By his side sat the Duchess of Angouleme, daughter of Louis XVI., and so long 
a prisoner in the Temple. In their route, they passed along the same avenue 
through which her mother had been borne to the scaffold. 

t Like all the Bourbons, he was given to tbe pleasures of the table. He had to be 
borne to his carriage, and was unable to mount his horse. 

X The Count of Artois was the first to leave France on the breaking out of the 
revolution, and the first to return. 



1814.] LOUIS XVIII. 267' 

it of his royal will, rather than accepted it as the condition 
of his restoration. The emigrants, who now flocked back, 
clamored loudly for their old lands, which had been bought 
and sold many times since their confiscation. The noblesse 
talked of reclaiming their feudal rights, and looked with 
insolent contempt upon the upstarts who had followed the 
fortunes of the Corsican adventurer.* No wonder that 
people's thoughts began again to turn toward Napoleon. f 

The Hundred Days (March 20 to June 22, 1815).— 
Napoleon, from "his island speck in the Mediterranean," 
watched the growing discontent, and resolved to return to 
France. Embarking with about one thousand men, he 
escaped the English cruisers, and landed near Cannes. 
At Grenoble he met a body of troops drawn up to bar 
his advance. The leader refused to parley and threatened 
to fire upon him. Wearing his familiar gray coat and 
cocked hat, Napoleon advanced alone in front of the line 
exclaiming, "Soldiers, if there be one among yon, who 
would kill his emperor, here he is." The soldiers dropped 
their arms and shouted, "Vive T Empereiir ! " Colonel 
Labedoyere joined him with his regiment. Each soldier 
took from the bottom of his knapsack the tricolor cockade, 
which he had carefully hidden for ten months. Ney was 
sent with a division to check the advance. He promised "to 
bring back, the Corsican to Paris in an iron cage." But 
when he saw the colors under which he had fought, and 
heard the shouts of the men he had so often led to battle, he 
forgot all, threw himself in the arms of the emperor, and 

* "Fourteen thousand officers who had worn their epaulettes in the face of the 
enemy, were replaced by men who had never borne the sword, and who prated of 
the white plume of Henry of Navarre to men who had carried the eagles into every 
great capital of the continent.'" 

t "Corporal Violet, as they called him. Ladies Avore violets in their bonnets. 
Little sketches were circulated in which the figure of a violet was so arranged that 
the interval between the leaves formed the well-known countenance of the emperor, 
with his gray coat and cocked hat. 11 — White. 



268 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1815. 

was again the "sword of France," and the right arm of 
Napoleon. The emigrant noblesse made no pause, but 
rushed off to resume " their scissors and dancing kit in their 
ancient haunts." Louis XVIII. fled incontinently. Napo- 
leon was reseated on the throne without shedding a drop of 
French blood. 

The Commissioners of the allied powers were at Vienna 
arranging a general peace when they heard of the return of 
Napoleon. They received the news with incredulity and 
then with roars of laughter. The former coalition was 
renewed, and their armies, a million strong, were sent back 
this time to subdue France as well as Napoleon. 

Battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras. — By the most 
strenuous exertions Napoleon was able to take the field at the 
head of about 125,000 men. With these he hastened north- 
ward to Belgium in order to defeat the English and Prus- 
sians before the Austrians and Eussians could arrive from^the 
Rhine. Finding the Prussians* drawn up at Ligny, Napoleon 
determined to attack them in person, while Ney took posses- 
sion of Quatre Bras, kept the English from sending reinforce- 
ments to Blucher (bloo'ker), and then falling upon the rear 
of the Prussians made of Ligny a second Jena. Napoleon 
forced the Prussians to retreat ; but Ney found Quatre Bras 
already occupied by the English, whom he failed to drive out. 
Napoleon, thinking the English and Prussians fairly sepa- 
rated, detached Grouchy with 34,000 men to watch Blucher, 
while he turned to attack the English at Waterloo, where 
Wellington had retired to a battle-field, which he had care- 
fully selected. 

Battle of Waterloo (June 18). — The two greatest 

* He expected to surprise the Prussians, but General Bourmont deserted and in- 
formed Blucher of all his plans, who therefore had time to concentrate his forces. 
Fouche also, who had in turn served each administration, and was a traitor to each, 
it is said, kept Wellington posted as to the plan of the campaign. 



1815.] NAPOLEOK I. 269 

generals of Europe were now opposed for the first time. 
Each had about 75,000 men. Napoleon opened the battle 
with a feigned but fierce attack on the chateau of Hougou- 
mont with its little garden and orchard on the British right. 
Then, under cover of a tremendous artillery-fire, he massed 
a heavy column against the centre. La Haye Sainte — a farm- 
house in front of Wellington's line — was taken, and the 
cavalry streamed up the heights beyond. The English threw 
themselves into squares, upon which the French cuirasseurs 
dashed with the utmost fury. For five hours they continued 
charging up to the very muzzles of the British guns. Eng- 
lish tenacity struggled with French enthusiasm. At last 
disorder spread through Wellington's ranks. Already fugi- 
tives from the battle-field had carried to Brussels the news of 
a defeat. Wellington himself, momentarily consulting his 
watch, longed, it is said, for night or Bliicher. Napoleon, 
equally anxious, hurried messenger after messenger to recall 
Grouchy to his help. Meanwhile the Prussians, eluding 
Grouchy, had pounded away for hours on the French right, 
distracting Napoleon's attention, and weakening his reserves. 
Just at evening their efforts slacking, Ney with the Old and 
Young Guards made a last effort. These veterans, whose 
presence had decided so many battles, swept to the very top 
of the slope. Wellington, turning to the British Guards who 
were lying down behind the crest, exclaimed, " Up and at 
them!" They rose and poured in a withering fire. The 
English converged from all sides. Suddenly a fierce can- 
nonading was heard on the extreme French right. " It is 
Grouchy," cried the soldiers. It was Bluchers masses carrying 
all before them. The terrible " sauve qui pent " arose. Whole 
ranks of the French melted away. "They are mingled," 
shouted Napoleon, and putting spurs to his horse, fled from 
the field. A few squares of the Old Guard fought despair- 



270 



REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 



[1815. 



ingly, refused to yield, and cried out, "The Old Guard dies, 
but never surrenders." Ney, with his clothes torn by bullets, 
tried to rally the fugitives, saying, "Follow me, that I may 
show you how dies a Marshal of France." But these efforts 
were vain. On this fearful day the French lost 30,000 men, 
and of the survivors few ever appeared in arms again. The 
retreat was as destructive as that of Moscow or Leipsic. The 
campaign of four days- was ended. 

Second Abdication. — "I see," said La Fayette, "only 
one man between us and peace. We have done enough for 

him. It is necessary 
to save France." Na- 
poleon, abdicating the 
throne once more, went 
to Rochefort, intend- 
ing to embark for the 
United States ; but 
finding every harbor 
guarded, went on board 
the English ship Belle- 
rophon, and cast him- 
self on British hospi- 
tality. The government treated him as a prisoner of war, 
and sent him to the Island of St. Helena, where he dragged 
out the remainder of his life * in recalling the glories of the 
past, and complaining of the annoyances of the present. 




TOMB OF NAPOLEON AT £T. HELENA. (1830.) 



* Napoleon died of a cancer in the stomach, a disease hereditary in his family, and 
from which he had long suffered. On the evening of May 5, 1821, there was a fearful 
storm of wind and rain raging, in the midst of which, as in the case of Cromwell, the 
soul of the conqueror went to its final account. The howling of the tempest seemed 
to recall to his wandering mind the roar of hattle, and his last words were u Tete 
d' armee." Ho was buried near a fountain shaded by a few weeping willows, which 
had been his favorite resort. In his will was a request Chat his " body might repose 
on the banks of the Seine, among the people he had loved so well." In the reign of 
Louis Philippe his remains were carried to Paris and laid beneath a magnificent 
mausoleum connected with the Hotel des Invalidcs. 



1815.] LOUIS XVIII. 271 

Second Restoration. — Again were the Bourbons forced 
upon the French by the bayonets of foreign armies. Paris 
was treated as a conquered city. Louis XVIII. returned to 
the Tuileries with his hungry herd of satellites and nobles. 
Bliicher was with difficulty prevented from blowing up the 
Pont de Jena and destroying the column in the Place Ven- 
dome. The treasures of art which Napoleon had gathered 
from the conquered cities of Europe were returned to 
their rightful owners. An indemnity of 700 millions francs 
was imposed, besides damages for the occupation of the 
territories of the allies by French armies. A foreign army 
of 150,000 men was to guard the frontier for five years at 
the expense of France. A territory containing a population 
of two and a half millions was cut off, so that France, 
after twenty-five years of victories, was left smaller than it 
was at the close of the reign of Louis XIV. Marshal Ney 
and General Labedoyere were tried for treason and shot. 

Royalist Reaction. — Louis, with his able minister, M. 
Decazes, endeavored to support moderate and constitutional 
men and measures, against the "Liberals" on the one hand, 
and the " Ultra-royalists " on the other. Unfortunately, the 
Duke de Berri, the younger son of the Count d' Artois, w T as 
assassinated (1820) as he was conducting his wife to her car- 
riage from the opera. The Liberals, though with no reason, 
were held responsible for this attempt to destroy the Bourbon 
line. Decazes was removed, and power fell into the hands of 
the Ultra-royalists. Individual liberty was suspended; the 
censorship of the press re-established; and the law of the 
" double vote " * enacted. The death of Louis, who was per- 

* The electors of each arrondisement or district were to nominate a list of candi- 
dates, from which the electors of the department— which included only the highest 
tax-payers— were to select the members of (he Legislature. This gave the rich land- 
holders two votes, one in their arrondisement with the other electors— afterward, one 
in their department. 



272 



REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 



[1822. 



sonally moderate, assured the triumph of these measures. 
The dying monarch committed the charter to his successors 
as the best inheritance he could leave. 

The Holy Alliance (1822). — The sovereigns of Eussia, 
Austria, and Prussia, after their triumph in 1815, formed a 
compact, agreeing " to regulate their conduct by the precepts 
of the Gospel," and also, as is generally believed, to aid one 
another in suppressing the principles of liberty aroused by 
the French Eevolution. At this time, the misgovernment of 
the restored Bourbon dynasty in Italy and Spain was so 
flagrant, that insurrections had broken out in both kingdoms. 
A secret society, termed the Carbonari, numbered 500,000 
members in Italy alone, with branches in various other coun- 
tries. * Ferdinand of Spain was forced to banish the Jesuits, 
to suppress the Inquisition, and to grant a free press and a 
liberal constitution. An Austrian army overthrew the repub- 
lican movement in Italy. Louis, in the last year of his reign, 

sent troops into Spain to restore 
Ferdinand to power. This was 
a conquest without glory or 
profit. The Spanish monarch 
at once cruelly wreaked . his 
vengeance on his subjects. In 
France, this easy victory over 
free institutions encouraged the 
royalists in all their pretensions. 
Charles X. (1824 to 1830 
=6 years), Count d'Artois and 
brother of Louis XVI. and 
Louis XVIIL, who now ascend- 
ed the throne, was crowned in 
the great cathedral at Kheims 
after the minutest detail of the old times ; even the miracu- 




CATHEDRAL AT RHEIMS. 



1824.] CHARLES X. 273 

lous vial, broken during the Kevolutionary days, was repaired, 
and a drop of the oil being discovered, he was anointed 
seven times. This ceremony was typical of his. purpose. 
He was bent on restoring the old monarchy, with all its 
rights and privileges. 

Expedition to (3-reece (1827). — The Greeks had long 
been struggling heroically to throw off the Turkish yoke. 
France, England, and Eussia sent a joint naval squadron to 
their assistance. In the battle of Navarino, the Turkish fleet 
was destroyed. A French army then retook the cities occu- 
pied by the Ottoman troops, and restored to the Greeks their 
lost independence. 

Expedition to Algiers (1830). A series of insults and 
injuries having been received from the Dcy of Algiers, an 
expedition was sent to obtain redress by force of arms. The 
camp of the enemy was taken, the city captured, and this 
nest of pirates destroyed. Algiers has since remained a per- 
manent colony of France. 

Revolution of 1830. — Foreign successes could not blind 
the people to the danger of despotism at home. Step by step 
the struggle went on between the king, determined on an 
absolute government, and the liberals, resolved on preserving 
the rights conquered by the Eevolution. Finally, as if to 
defy France, he dismissed the moderate cabinet of M. de Mar- 
tignac, and replaced it by the ministry of M. de Polignac.* 
It was a declaration of war against the charter and liberty 
itself. The contest widened into one between the nation and 
the Bourbon monarchy. Intense excitement was aroused. 
The chambers voted that the new ministrv had not the con- 



* This cabinet contained as ministers three of his most devoted adherents, Polig- 
nac, Labourdonnaye, and Bourmont. They were personally obnoxious to the people. 
The first was an emigrant, and represented all the rancor, bitterness, and bigotry of 
that class. The second had been prominent in the proscription and bloodshed of the 
2d Restoration. The third had deserted on the ere of Waterloo. (See p. 268.) 



274 



REVOLUTIONARY. FRANCE. 



[1830. 



fidence of the country, diaries stood by Iris cabinet.* The 
chamber was dissolved. The obnoxious deputies, however, 
were returned. Charles now decided on a coup cVetat. A 
series of arbitrary ordinances was issued, suppressing the 
liberty of the press, dissolving the recently elected chambers, 
and prescribing a new system of elections. 

The Three Pays of July (27, 
28 and 29) was the response of the 
people to this flagrant usurpation. 
Barricades arose as by magic. La 
Fayette once more appeared on the 
scene, waving the tricolored flag. 
The whole population of Paris be- 



|ir came an army; each house a for- 



tress. Bloody contests ensued. The 
troops after a time fraternized with 
the populace. f The Tuileries was 
sacked. Charles was forced to flee.J; 
The chambers called the Duke of 
Orleans, son of Egalite and cousin 
of Charles X., to the throne. 




COLUMN OF JULY § 



* "No compromise, no sin-render," was his motto. He kept saying, "Louis XVI. 
lost his throne by concessions, and was led to the scaffold for having always yielded." 

t It is stated as characteristic of the temper of the people that on the 29th a body 
of men carried off a quantity of timber from the lumber yard of an English architect, 
to make barricades, and on the following day returned it with scrupulous honesty. 

+ It is a singular fact, and significant of the utter lack of political foresight on the 
part of the Bourbons, that Louis XVI. was out hunting at Meuden the day the mob 
was gathering for the march on Versailles (October 5, 1789), and Charles X. was shoot- 
ing rabbits at St. Cloud, while Paris was heaving with the preparatory throes of a 
new Revolution (July 26, 1830). 

§ The Column of July, one of the most beautiful pieces of architecture of the kind 
extant, was erected in 1840 by the French nation to the memory of the victims who 
fell during the memorable three days of July 1830, and whose remains were deposited 
beneath it. 



1830.] LOUIS PHILIPPE. 275 

III.— HOUSE OF ORLEANS. 

1830 to 1848 = 13 Years. 

Louis Philippe was elected as "King of the French," 
and therefore the leader of the nation. The charter of 
Louis XVIII. was given of his own good pleasure, that* of 
Louis Philippe was accepted by him from the Chamber of 
Deputies. Thus France repudiated the doctrine of the 
" divine right of kings," and founded a throne on the theory 
that sovereignty rests with the people. The liberties gained 
by the revolution were at last guaranteed by a constitutional 
monarch. Shrewd, economic, with excellent business habits, 
tried by adversity, having none of the arrogance of the elder 
Bourbons, and irreproachable in private life, Louis Philippe's 
character merited confidence. The remembrance of his 
valor at Jemmapes and Valmy, his constant association 
with liberal leaders, his charming family, the education given 
his sons in the public schools, all conspired to render him 
popular with the people. 

Difficulties of the Government. — There were now 
three parties in France: (1) the Legitimists, the adherents 
of the elder branch of the Bourbons, who upheld the claims 
of the Duke of Bordeaux, grandson of Charles X., better 
known as Comte de Chambord, or Henry V. ; (2) the Eepub- 
licans, eager for the establishment of a republic; (3) the 
Orleanists, to which Louis Philippe belonged, who were firm 
supporters of the constitutional monarchy. In the eyes of 
the first, "the king of the barricades," as Louis Philippe 
was styled, was a usurper, while the second considered him 
a tyrant. There began to be developed also an intense 

* " Behold," said La Fayette, as he presented the new king to the people, from 
the Hotel de Villc, '• the best of republics. n 



276 R EVOLUTIONARY PRANCE. [1830. 

hatred against the bourgeoisie or middle classes, of which 
Louis Philippe was a representative. They were accused of 
selfishness and a systematic robbing of the poor by not giving 
them just returns for their labor. It was held that the gov- 
ernment should protect the workingman, and assure him in 
return for light labor a sufficient remuneration. This social- 
istic doctrine was very acceptable to the idle and turbulent. 
Various political associations and insurrectionary clubs fo- 
mented the disorders of society, and took advantage of every 
indication of popular discontent. Among the Eed or Eadical 
Republicans there were several vigilant, energetic leaders, 
who in secret organized and directed every movement of the 
people. The favorite motto was, "Liberty, Equality, and 
Fraternity." There was great distress among the workmen 
who had been discharged by their employers on account of 
the disturbance of business during the late revolution. Ob- 
scure plots were continually being formed against the gov- 
ernment. Lamentable riots took place in Paris and provin- 
cial cities, which were only suppressed by military force and 
after much loss of life. No less than seven different attempts 
were made to assassinate the king.* Louis Philippe, in the 
existing state of affairs, was exceedingly anxious to avoid 
any cause of disturbance with the other European nations. 
His conciliatory spirit and moderate temper gave great of- 
fence to a people so ambitious of conquest and jealous of the 
national honor. New complications constantly arose. The 

* One of these has become historical. A miscreant named Fieschi devised an 
"infernal machine," consisting of twenty-five musket barrels, diverging fan-like 
from a centre, and made to be fired instantaneously by a train of gunpowder. As 
the king was riding in a procession through the Boulevard du Temple on the anni- 
versary of the Revolution (July 28, 1835), what seemed a volley of musketry suddenly 
issued from a building near by. followed by the shrieks of the crowd. Louis Phi- 
lippe escaped injury, but several persons were killed or wounded. The victims of 
this tragedy were buried a few days after. The first of the funeral cars contained the 
remains of Mortier, a marshal of the Empire, and the last, the body of a little girl 
who had fallen as she stoo^ gazing on the glittering pageant. 



1830.] LOUIS PHILIPPE. 277 

opposition to the government was watchful and powerful. 
The reign was therefore characterized by frequent changes 
of the ministry; the cabinet being organized no less than 
seven times to meet the varying phases of public sentiment. 

Belgium, by the convention of 1815, had been annexed to 
Holland. The people of Brussels revolted against the Dutch 
rule, raised the tricolor, and established a provisional govern- 
ment. The five great powers of Europe acknowledged the 
independence of the country. Though the Belgians offered 
the throne to a son of Louis Philippe, the king wisely 
refrained from thus exciting the jealousy of other nations. 
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who was chosen king, after- 
ward married the eldest daughter of the French monarch. 
Supporting his authority, the French and English joined in 
expelling the Dutch from Belgium. 

The Quadruple Alliance (1840).— Mehemet Ali, vice- 
roy of Egypt, a man of great ability and energy, having 
aroused his own people from their lethargy, had raised a 
powerful army, conquered Syria, . and threatened Constan- 
tinople. The Sultan, too weak to defend himself, appealed 
to the Western powers. France supported the viceroy's am- 
bitious views. England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia there- 
upon formed an alliance to compel the Pacha to resign the 
territory he had conquered. France was not consulted in 
the agreement. General indignation was felt at this slight. 
A rupture with England seemed imminent. The work of 
fortifying Paris, twice taken so easily by foreigners, was at 
once commenced. Thiers (te-er), the minister of foreign 
affairs, who was thought not sufficiently anxious to vindicate 
French honor, was forced to resign. Meanwhile the treaty 
had been executed, and the viceroy had agreed to its pro- 
visions. Guizot, the new minister, acquiesced in the arrange- 
ment. He was sustained by both chambers, and war was 



278 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1845. 

thus happily averted. The fortifications were continued, and 
excited increased bitterness, as it was thought they were in- 
tended not so much for a protection against foreign invaders, 
as to overawe the city itself. 

The Algerian Colony carried on a long and severe con- 
test with the native Arabs, prominent among whom was 
Abd-el Kader, a chief of great genius and power. In 1833 
the French army numbered 25,000 men. Many bloody bat- 
tles were fought, and, within five years, one hundred native 
tribes had submitted. Eoads were opened, towns founded, 
and a flourishing settlement established. Abd-el Kader, 
driven from place to place, maintained an obstinate resistance, 
until at last he retreated to a rocky fortress of the Great 
Atlas. Here he was surprised and taken prisoner by the 
chasseurs d'Afrique, under the Duke d'Aumale. The French 
losses had been very great, owing to the unhealthiness of the 
climate, and the continued warfare. Before the close of 1845, 
the colony cost $200,000,000, and the lives of 300,000 men. 

Louis Napoleon, the son of Louis Bonaparte and Hor- 
tense Beauharnais, on the death of the Duke of Eeichstadt, 
son of Napoleon I. (July 22d, 1832), was next heir of the 
empire. In 1836 he came to Strasburg, and presented him- 
self to the garrison, dressed in the costume of the emperor, 
and called them to support his pretensions to the throne. 
He met with little encouragement, and was arrested. Louis 
Philippe declined to bring him to trial, and sent him to 
America. The attempt merely excited general merriment. 
Undiscouraged by his failure, he made a second equally 
absurd descent upon Boulogne. He landed here with a few 
friends and a tame eagle, expecting to arouse the memory of 
Napoleon's conquering eagles. He was arrested, tried and 
sentenced for life to the fortress of Ham, while the eagle was 
turned over as a curiosity to the Zoological Gardens at Paris. 



1842.] LOUIS PHILIPPE. 279 

Louis afterwards escaped and fled to England, where he 
brooded over his "destiny," as he called it. 

The popularity of the " citizen king " had been steadily 
waning. Though possessing a fortune, he manifested an 
intensely selfish spirit. While France w T as groaning under 
the burden of taxation, he demanded for himself and court 
an enormous salary, and donations for his sons on the slight- 
est pretexts. The death of the Duke of Orleans, his eldest 
son (July 13, 1842), was a heavy blow, and cast a cloud over 
the future of the Orleans dynasty. The Prince was an able 
general, a liberal politician, and a loyal man. All were look- 
ing forward to his rule as most hopeful. The next heir to 
the throne was the Count of Paris, only four years old, and 
this gave the prospect of a long minority and a regency, with 
their attendant dangers and perplexities. The anxiety of the 
king to secure royal alliances for his family caused great scan- 
dal. The " Spanish marriages " * were especially obnoxious. 

Reform Banquets. — The memorable "laws of Septem- 
ber" (1835) had placed the press under a severe censorship. 
Out of a population of 35,000,000 only 220,000 had the right 
of franchise. Nearly half the members of the Chamber of 
Deputies held positions under the government. The oppo- 
sition repeatedly demanded a few necessary reforms. The 
ministry refused. Seventy reform banquets, as they were 
called, were accordingly held in the principal cities. At 
these, the leaders of the opposition met to express their views 
in toasts and speeches. 

Revolution of 1848. — A banquet announced at Paris 
was forbidden by the government. Barricades sprang up. 
Several conflicts took place with the soldiers. Meanwhile, a 

* The Duke of Montpensier, fifth son of the king, was married to Isabella, Infanta 
of Spain ; while the Spanish Queen Isabella was sacrificed to the selfish scheme by 
being allied to a half idiotic cousin. The former marriage was in direct violation of 
a distinct promise made by Guizot, then minister to the English Government, which 
opposed the alliance. 



280 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1848. 

liberal ministry was nominated under the presidency of 
Thiers. The people supposed the end was gained. But the 
direction of the movement had passed out of the hands of 
those who began it, into those of skillful conspirators and the 
veterans of the barricades. A multitude bearing a red flag 
were marched into the boulevards already crowded by the 
people rejoicing over the change of ministry. They came in 
front of the Hotel of Foreign Affairs, where they were stopped 
by the troops. A pistol-shot was fired by — no one knows 
whom. The soldiers responded with a volley which stretched 
upon the pavement fifty inoffensive bystanders. The multi- 
tude fled. The dead bodies were placed on wagons which 
were already at hand for the purpose, and paraded through 
the streets to arouse the populace. On all sides arose cries of 
"vengeance." The bells pealed from every steeple. Armed 
men went from house to house in the faubourgs, summoning 
the inhabitants to arms. The National Guards fraternized 
with the people. What was commenced as a reform, speedily 
became a revolution. The regular army proved faithful, and 
had already begun to put down the tumult, when the new 
ministry ordered it to fall back to the Tuileries. All resist- 
ance was at once paralyzed. Louis Philippe lost heart, and 
while the firing was still going on at the Palais Eoyal, abdi- 
cated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris. Soon 
after, he escaped to England. The Duchess of Orleans, with a 
heroism worthy of a better fate, went to the Chambers leading 
her little son, the Count of Paris, and pleaded for his rights. 
It was too late. The rabble burst into the hall and demanded 
the republic. A provisional government was now formed, the 
republic proclaimed (Feb. 20), universal suffrage declared, 
and a National Assembly soon after elected. For days, Paris 
was ruled by an armed mob. They filled the Place de Greve ; 
they crowded the Hotel de Ville ; the wildest leveled their 



1818.] LOUIS NAPOLEOK. 281 

bayonets upon Lamartine, the new Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
But by his wonderful eloquence and undaunted firmness, he 
at last restored order. 



IV. THE SECOND REPUBLIC. 

1843 to 1852 = 4 Years. 

Difficulties of the Government. — The finances were 
thoroughly disorganized. Thousands of laborers were idle. 
The Socialists or Red Republicans constantly taught that the 
government should provide work and wages for every one. 
Anxious only for anarchy, they opposed every movement 
looking to the establishment of a settled government. The 
clubs, over fifty in number, were schools of sedition. To re- 
lieve the present distress, national workshops were founded, 
and soon 60,000 workmen were enrolled. Their chief em- 
ployment was careering through the streets, roaring revolu- 
tionary songs, proclaiming " Liberty, Fraternity, and Equal- 
ity," and planting sorry-looking poplars along the streets, 
which they compelled unwilling priests to consecrate as 
" trees of liberty." Trade was paralyzed. Specie payments 
ceased. The financial pressure was as severe as in the days 
of Robespierre. Measures were finally taken to close the 
national shops, which all saw to be a crying evil, and disperse 
the workmen to legitimate employment. The Reds took 
advantage of the opportunity, and organized an outbreak. 
Three hundred barricades were thrown up. For three days 
a fearful battle raged in the streets of Paris, General 
Oavaignac was made Dictator. By his skill and energy the 
insurgents were routed from their strongest positions. The 
good Archbishop of Paris, anxious to save life, ventured be- 



282 KEVOLUTIONAEY FRANCE. [1848. 

hind one of the barricades near the Bastille, and was killed 
while exhorting the multitude to make peace. The insurrection 
was finally suppressed, but not until 5,000 persons had fallen. 

Louis Napoleon. — There were two candidates for the 
presidency, General Cavaignac who was the saver of the 
country from anarchy, and Louis Napoleon, who though 
now a representative in the Assembly, was yet mainly known 
by his strange adventure at Boulogne. There was magic, 
however, in the name. Louis Napoleon was elected by an 
overwhelming majority, and took the oath to the constitu- 
tion (December 20, 1848). 

A Coup d'Etat (December 2, 1851). — Before Napoleon's 
term of office had expired, difficulties arose between him 
and the Assembly. He quelled all opposition by his famous 
Coup cVEtat. One evening, the president held a brilliant 
party at the Elysee. He was in high spirits, laughing and 
chatting with his guests. That night troops moved silently 
to their posts. The members of the opposition, the street 
captains and the leaders of the clubs were arrested in their 
beds. In the morning, to the amazement of the people, the 
street-corners were held by soldiers, and the walls were pla- 
carded by proclamations announcing that the Assembly was 
dissolved, universal suffrage proclaimed, and a ministry ap- 
pointed. There were insurrections, but the army was 
ready, and every rising was quelled with Napoleonic sever- 
ity. The disaffected were summarily arrested, tried by 
military tribunals, and transported. France, tired of the 
rule of the mob, welcomed an authority which promised 
peace and security. The attempt to reconcile liberty with 
order had again failed, and the people gave up the former 
to gain the latter. A new constitution which made Napo- 
leon president for ten years was accepted by a popular vote 
of over 7,000,000 out of 8,000,000. 



1852.] 



LOUIS NAPOLEON, 



283 



Establishment of the Empire.— The prisoner of Ham 
now took up his residence in the Tuileries with almost 
absolute power and a salary of 12,000,000 francs. As the 
constitution of the year VIII. led to the establishment of 
the Empire under Napoleon I., so the regime inaugurated 




PROCLAIMING THE COUP D ETAT. 



by the coup d'etat of '5.1, was fol- 
lowed by the restoration of the em- 
pire under Napoleon III. In 1852, 
Louis Napoleon was declared Em- 
peror by a still more unanimous 
vote than that which sanctioned his 
violent overthrow of the republic 

he had sworn to maintain. Soon after his accession to 
the throne, he married Eugenie de Montijo, Countess of 
Teba, a Spanish lady of beauty and ancient family. 




284 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1852. 

V. THE SECOND EMPIRE. 

1852 to 1370 = 13 Years. 

Napoleon III. — The policy of the emperor was closely 
modeled on that of Napoleon I. He relied on the army 
for support, and centralized all power. Under his vigorous 
and able administration a new era of glory opened before 
France. "The Empire is peace/' was proclaimed as the 
imperial maxim. The nation set itself at work to develop 
its latent energies and wealth. Fresh industries were 
opened. Railroads were extended over the country. Val- 
uable reforms w r ere instituted. The army was reorganized, 
and became the finest in the world. The navy was in- 
creased, and made second only to that of England. Agri- 
culture was encouraged. The fine arts received a wonder- 
ful development. Paris was almost rebuilt under the plans 
of M. Haussmann. Provincial cities followed the example of 
widening the narrow streets, and admitting into the lowest 
quarters the great friends to health — the sun and the air. 
The confidence of the people in the government was shown 
by the method of raising money. Instead of resorting to 
the large capitalists, a subscription was opened and preference 
given to those offering the smallest sums. Many times the 
amount required was signed before the lists could be closed. 
The emperor's lavish expenditure thus became a source of 
gain to the peasants and persons of small means by afford- 
ing them a safe and lucrative investment for their savings. 
The French became a nation of investors, and the creditors 
of the government were to be found among the industrious 
rather than the moneyed classes. 

Crimean War (1854-6). — While Napoleon sought to 
develop the prosperity of the nation, he was also bent upon 



1854.] NAPOLEON III. 285 

restoring France to the political 'situation she had lost by 
the reverses of 1815, and making her influence felt in all 
parts of the world. The Emperor Nicholas of Eussia, 
anxious to seize the spoil of the <* sick man/*' as the Sultan 
of Turkey was called, under the pretext of supporting the 
claims of the Greek Christians to certain holy places in 
Jerusalem, took possession of some provinces on the Danube. 
France and England united to aid the Sultan.* An allied 
army 70,000 strong, was landed in» the Crimea. The vic- 
tory of the Alma enabled the troops to advance upon Sebas- 
topol, a formidable fortress which gave the Czar the com- 
mand of the Black Sea, and in whose harbor lay the fleet 
which menaced Constantinople and the Bosphorus. This 
remarkable siege lasted nearly a year. Innumerable com- 
bats, two desperate battles — Balaklava and Inkermann — 
incessant watchfulness by day and night, the fatiguing labor 
of the trenches, the unhealthiness of the climate, tried the 
valor of the French and the constancy of the English. 
Finally the French stormed the Malakhoff, and the Eussians, 
finding the city indefensible, evacuated it. Forts, churches, 
palaces and vessels, all were destroyed. When the con- 
querors entered they found such ruin, flame, and devastation 
as greeted Napoleon and his army in the streets of Moscow. 
By the treaty of Paris (1856) the Czar agreed to abandon his 
protectorate over the Danubian provinces; the navigation 
of the Danube was made free; and the Eussians were for- 
bidden to have vessels of war on the Black Sea. France 
obtained no substantial benefit from a war on which she had 
lavished her army and treasure. 
War of Italy (1859). — In the Crimean war, Victor 

* There is a beautiful description of the causes of this war in Kinglake's Invasion 
of the Crimea, ending thus, " A crowd of monks with hare foreheads stood quarrel- 
ing for a key at the sunny gates of a church in Palestine ; hut beyond and above all, 
towering high in the, misty north, men saw the ambition of the Czar. 1 ' 



286 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1859. 

Emmanuel II., king of Sardinia, had furnished 15,000 troops. 
This welcome support had secured him the friendship of the 
allied powers. The predominance of Austria in Italy had 
long awakened the jealousy of France, and when, despite the 
efforts of England, the Austrians invaded Sardinia, Napoleon 
at once took the field. A success at MonteMlo* and a 
brilliant victory at Magenta brought him to Milan in tri- 
umph. Thence, pushing on to Solferino, he again routed 
the Austrians. The mysterious Peace of Villafranca sud- 
denly concluded the war. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia, 
and the different States of the Peninsula were to form a Con- 
federation under the presidency of the Pope. Soon after, 
Nice and Savoy were annexed to France. This treaty 
greatly disappointed the Italians and the friends of liberty 
everywhere, as on taking the field, the emperor had promised 
that " Italy should be free from the Ticino to the Adriatic."! 
Napoleon, however, hesitated to proceed further against 
Austria, and Prussia threatened to interfere. 

War in Mexico (1862). — In 1862 France, England, and 
Spain sent an expedition into Mexico to obtain redress for 
injuries suffered by foreign residents in that country, and 
also to induce the people to elect a ruler and put an end to 
the anarchy which had so long distracted the nation. Diffi- 
culties arose, and the Spaniards and the English abandoned 
the enterprise. The French thereupon advanced inland, and 

* Here was seen a novelty in the art of war. The troops were rapidly brought on 
the field of battle by railroad, train after train disgorging its load and returning 
for more. 

+ Now began the wonderful campaign of Garibaldi, the "hero of the red shirt. 11 
which gave liberty to Naples and Sicily. Victor Emmanuel steadily pursued his 
successes until (1861) he became king of Italy. When Napoleon was president, he 
sent a body of troops to Rome to the support of th© Pope, and to overcome the 
republic which had been set up in that city. A French garrison remained in Rome 
until the war between France and Germany (1870) caused the troops to be with- 
drawn, when Rome was taken, the temporal power of the Pope overcome, and Italy 
became free and united. 



1867.] NAPOLEON III. 287 

after many reverses succeeded in taking the city of Mexico. 
Refusing to treat with the liberal government under Juarez, 
the French commander called an assembly, which decided 
that Mexico should be an empire, and tendered the throne 
to Archduke Maximilian of Austria. He accepted on certain 
conditions, one of which was that the call should be a spon- 
taneous expression of the whole nation. After his accession, 
the new emperor found that he had been deceived in every 
particular, that the republican feeling was strong, that the 
empire was not demanded, least of all the rule of a European 
and the interference of a foreign power in American affairs. 
The French troops being withdrawn (1867), Maximilian was 
unable to maintain his authority against Juarez. He was 
captured, tried by court martial and executed. With him 
fell the empire. 

World's Fair. — In the year 1867, a grand exhibition of 
the industry of the world was held at Paris. It attracted 
great numbers of distinguished visitors from all countries. 
All were impressed with the evidences of a wonderful mate- 
rial prosperity. France and the Empire seemed at the height 
of their glory. Under the emperor, the French at home ap- 
peared happy and prosperous, and abroad their influence was 
felt, and their power respected.* 

Dangers of the Government.— Amid all this prosperity 
there were grave causes for fear. Liberty had been sacrificed. 
The people had no intelligent ideas of government. There 
was no effective system of popular education, and the masses 
were grossly ignorant. Despotic power was vested in one 
man. Prefects interfered in the elections. Prosecutions of 

* In conjunction with England, it had given security to the Turks, and gained 
admission for French commerce into China and Japan. It had aided the Italians in 
throwing off the Austrian yoke, and protected the Christians of Syria against their 
Mohammedan oppressors. 



288 REVOLUTIONARY PRANCE. [18T0. 

journals were common. Public meetings were so restricted, 
as to be of little value ; and the police were invoked if any 
measure was taken which was susceptible of a political mean- 
ing. Legitimists, Orleanists, Republicans, and Socialists were 
resolute in their hostility. Many had not forgiven the em- 
peror for his coup d'etat of December 2d. The health of 
Napoleon was failing, and his policy was said to lack its 
former vigor. The debt was increasing. The lavish expense 
on the improvements of Paris excited bitter opposition. The 
Mexican expedition was a failure, and sympathy for Maxi- 
milian was openly expressed. The French garrison at Borne 
for the protection of the Pope offended the anti-Catholic 
party. Events showed that the Empire was in its deca- 
dence. 

Attempt at Reform. — In fulfilment of his often-repeated 
promises, Napoleon began the task of reforming the govern- 
ment, so as to make it more liberal. He accordingly granted 
a constitution, a popularly elected assembly, and a respon- 
sible ministry. To ratify this, as well as the imperial rule, 
an appeal was made to the people. The measures were 
accepted by an overwhelming majority, though the large 
cities were generally adverse, and over 50,000 opposing votes 
were cast in the army. The latter was most alarming, as 
here the emperor had looked for unfaltering support. 

War with Germany (1870-1). For some time there 
had been a bitter feeling between France and Prussia. The 
latter was rapidly increasing in territory and military strength. 
This aroused the jealousy of the French, so proud of their 
martial power, and their pre-eminence in Europe. The Prus- 
sians were anxious to avenge the disgrace of Jena, recover the 
Rhine, and consolidate the petty German States into one grand 
empire with Prussia at its head. Both sides were in reality 
anxious for a war, and were only waiting for a pretext. It 



1870.] NAPOLEON III. 289 

soon appeared. Among the candidates for the vacant throne 
of Spain was Prince Hohenzollern. France protested against 
this extension of Prussian influence. The prince, to preserve 
the peace, withdrew his claim. This seemed to end the mat- 
ter, but France demanded assurances from King William of 
Prussia that he would not support such a claim thereafter. 
The refusal was construed into an insult, and war was 
declared. 

Preparation. — The Minister of War announced to Napo- 
leon that the army was in readiness, and it was currently 
believed in Paris that not even a shoebuckle would be 
needed for a year. The result proved that the French were 
entirely unprepared. The troops left Paris to the cry of 
" On to Berlin ! " but they never crossed the Ehine. Instead 
of an invasion of Germany by the French, the war became an 
invasion of France by the Germans. The emperor lost two 
weeks in taking the field. He had then but 240,000 men. 
The army seemed to have no head. Lacking unity, the dif- 
ferent corps were beaten in detail. The troops had no respect 
for their officers, and lacked discipline and confidence. The 
generals were ignorant of the country and of the position of 
the enemy. The maps were full of blunders. The mitrail- 
leuse,* on which much dependence was placed, proved of 
little value. The smaller states of Germany, which were 
jealous of the influence of Prussia and supposed to be ready 
to declare against her, put their armies at the disposal of the 
Prussian king. 

Invasion of France. — A slight encounter of the advance 
posts at Saarhrilch \ opened the campaign, and was magnified 

* This consisted of several guns mounted on one carriage, and was designed to 
fire grapeshot with great rapidity. 

t The young Prince Imperial rode out to the front at this time, and showed great 
coolness when he came within the range of hullets. The emperor, describing it, 
spoke of his having received his "baptism of fire.'" 

13 



290 REVOLUTIONARY PRAKCE. [1870. 

into a French victory. From this time the German armies 
moved forward, crushing all opposition with their superior 
discipline and overwhelming numbers. Part of McMahon's 
corps was beaten at Weissenburg , and the whole cut to pieces 
at Worth. Marshal Bazaine, defeated at Courcelles, fell back 
with nearly 200,000 men into the fortress of Metz. The em- 
peror now resigned the entire command to Bazaine, who, in 
obedience to reiterated orders, attempted to retreat to Cha- 
lons, where McMahon was gathering the reserve forces. He 
delayed his movement one day. Meanwhile the Germans 
were straining every nerve to head off his flight* Defeated 
at Mpiiis-la-Tour, Vionville, and finally in the terrible battle 
of Gravelotte, Bazaine was fairly driven back into Metz. 
The emperor, with McMahon's army, now moved north, in 
the hope of joining Bazaine, who was expected to make an 
effort to break out in that direction. Bazaine, however, 
made no serious exertion to escape. The Germans swung 
their left wing around with tremendous force, and brought 
the centre sharply into line, thus pushing the French army 
against the Belgian frontier at Sedan. After a desperate 
battle, the emperor was compelled to surrender with his 
entire force, 80,000 strong. France had now no regular 
troops in the field. Her armies were all either prisoners, or 
shut up in fortresses. Thenceforth the war consisted mainly 
of sieges. There were attempts made to raise new armies, but 
the fresh levies were quite unable to make head against the 
veteran German forces, and their efforts, though gallant, were 
fruitless. Strasburg surrendered after a bombardment which 
injured the tower of its beautiful cathedral, and destroyed its 
famous library. Bazaine, as it proved afterward, was a traitor, 

* One corps, the 3d Brandenburgers, planted itself directly across Bazaine's p-.th, 
and held the French at bay for three hours, until reinforcements arrived. At one 
time, it is said, there were 150,000 French against 38,000 Germans. Whole regiments 
were sacrificed in this tremendous struggle. 



1871.] NAPOLEON III. 291 

and, after making a weak defence, surrendered the fortress of 
Metz with 180,000 men able to bear arms. The people had 
already lost all confidence in the government. On the day 
of the defeat at Worth, bulletins announcing a French vic- 
tory were posted up in the Bourse at Paris. It was believed 
that the ministers had issued them for purposes of specula- 
tion. There was great excitement, and the ministry of 
Ollivier was forced to resign. A new " ministry of public 
defence " under Count Palikao was thereupon organized. 

Downfall of the Empire. — On the news of the dis- 
aster at Sedan, the blame of all the bitter reverses of the war 
was conveniently thrown on the emperor. Eugenie, who 
had been appointed regent, attempted to organize a new 
ministry, but in vain. The Paris mob,* the first to act in 
any revolution, broke into the Legislative hall, the members 
dispersed, and the empire was at an end. The same day 
(Sunday, September 4) a handful of politicians met in the 
Hotel de Ville, proclaimed a republic, and selected a com- 
mittee of "National Defence." General Trochu was ap- 
pointed president, and Jules Favre minister of foreign affairs. 
Every preparation was made to defend Paris. Troops were 
rapidly organized and drilled, and the defences strengthened. 

The Siege of Paris. — While the sieges of the other 
fortified places were still progressing, the German troops had 
been closing in upon Paris, and the city was slowly but 
surely invested.! A population of 2,000,000, with a garrison 
of a half million, was entirely shut off from the outside 



■* Busts of the emperor were torn down ; his portrait and that of the empress tram- 
pled under foot ; names of streets were changed, and the same hostility shown to the 
emblems of the monarchy as in 1793. The Germans in Paris were hrutally mal* 
treated, and thousands driven from the city. 

t The walls of Paris were thirty- three feet high, and twenty miles long, with a 
moat forty feet broad. At a distance of several miles was a girdle of sixteen de- 
tached forts. 



292 REVOLUTION A J! Y FEANCE. [1870-1. 

world.* The spirits of the people were kept up by delusive 
expectations. It was announced that the garrisons of 
Metz, Tou], and Strasburg would break out to aid the 
beleaguered capital. Gambetta, minister of the interior, who 
had taken balloon passage from Paris, was stirring up the 
people everywhere through the provinces by his fiery elo- 
quence. Thiers was supplicating foreign governments to aid 
France. Now the army of the Loire and then that of the 
North was about to accomplish wonders. Trochu himself 
was preparing a grand sortie that was to save Paris. But 
none of these schemes availed. The Germans mounted 
tremendous artillery, and soon their shells searched out all 
the city on the left of the Seine. Provisions began to fail.f 
Cats, dogs, and rats sold at high prices. Food was dealt out 
to the citizens in meagre morsels scarcely sufficient to support 
life. Horse flesh was a dainty. Every sortie was repulsed. 
Every hope of aid failed. After enduring a siege of a hundred 
and thirty-one days and a bombardment of a month, the 
city capitulated. The defences were disarmed, and the Ger- 
mans marched in triumph through the Champs d'Elysee. 
An armistice was granted, during which an Assembly should 
be elected to arrange conditions of peace. Large quantities 
of provisions were sent from England to the famishing 
Parisians, while seed was freely distributed among the ruined 

* Various means were adopted to secure occasional means of communication. 
After the underground telegraph was cut off, they used halloons which carried mails 
and passengers who were willing to trust themselves to this hazardous mode of 
conveyance ; and also carrier-pigeons having a quill containing a roll of tissue paper 
on which were photographed thousands of words. 

t The small villages environing Paris are built of stone, and the gardens are sur- 
rounded by stone walls about two feet thick and five feet high. They, in fact, con- 
stituted so many forts. By piercing these walls for musketry, and planting bat- 
teries, the Germans soon formed a girdle about the city completely impregnable. 
The numerous market-gardens were full of vegetables, hay was in the stack sufficient 
for the horses, and the abandoned houses furnished excellent quarters. Thus while 
the French were famishing, the Germans enjoyed every comfort and even luxury. 



1871.] THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 293 

peasants to sow their land laid waste by the passage of 
the army. 

VI. THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 

1871 to Present Time. 

Peace. — The assembly was elected without difficulty, the 
Germans who occupied a large portion of the country afford- 
ing every facility. It met at Bordeaux. Thiers was ap- 
pointed chief executive, and afterward president of the 
republic (August 31). The treaty which was finally nego- 
tiated was most humiliating — an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 
francs, payable in three years; Alsace and the German 
part of Lorraine with Metz to be ceded to Germany; and 
Champagne to be occupied at the cost of France by the Ger- 
man troops, who were to remain in the neighborhood of Paris 
until 500,000,000 francs were paid. Thus Strasburg, taken 
by Louis XIV., and Metz by Henry II., were lost, and France 
itself, which in 1814 had been conquered only by all Europe, 
lay completely at the mercy of one nation. Jena and all 
the cruel indignities which Napoleon had inflicted on Ger- 
many were sadly expiated. 

The Commune (1871).— While a German army was yet 
at hand, the indemnity unpaid, and the country devastated 
by war, the Parisian rabble inaugurated a second reign of 
terror.* An attempt to disarm the National Guard was 
resisted. Barricades were thrown up, the middle classes 

* There were numerous causes for this uprising. The workmen thrown out of 
employment by the war, during the siege had nocked into the National Guards, and 
been kept alive by a payment of thirty cents a day. The government had unfor- 
tunately suspended the payment of rents, debts, interest, &c. With peace and the 
establishment of a regular authority, the old relations between debtor and creditor 
would be renewed. The new government showed an intention of escaping the 
Paris rabble, and held its meetings at Versailles. The Socialist and Internationa] 
leaders again controlled this excitable crowd as in the days of the second republic, 
and taught them their foolish ideas about the rights of property. 



294 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1871. 

refused to aid the government, and Paris was soon in the 
hands of the Eed Kepublicans. The tricolor was hauled, 
down and the red flag, symbol of anarchy, hoisted on the 
Tuileries. A commune* was established at the Hotel de 
Ville. Banks, insurance companies, etc., were laid under con- 
tributions. Churches and private dwellings were pillaged, 
and individuals arrested ; executions increased daily ; the old 
revolutionary calendar was inaugurated, and even an attempt 
made to resume the red caps of liberty. The Assembly 
gathered at Versailles, and raised its forces. A second siege 
of Paris now began, still more destructive than the first. 
Again a bombardment commenced. The wretched inhabit- 
ants hid in cellars to escape its dangers and the still greater 
peril from the violent and drunken rabble who composed the 
insurgent army. The ramparts were forced, and a combat 
ensued which lasted seven days. The communists, finding 
that all was lost, took a terrible revenge. They determined 
to destroy the city which they could not hold. Committees 
were appointed, the city was divided, and, by means of petro- 
leum, an effort made to lay Paris in ruins. The Tuileries, 
the Hotel de Ville, and many other public buildings were 
destroyed. 

The Assembly, having now the control of the entire 
country, assumed the functions of government. Though 
chosen originally only to make peace with Germany, it 
refused to resign, and new members were elected to fill 
vacancies in this self-constituted body. The administration 
of Thiers was singularly successful. Order was re-established. 

* There was a conflict of intei'ests between the cities, which were strongly repub- 
lican, and the country districts, which were monarchical. The assembly was thought 
to favor the latter. Paris was the advocate of municipal rights and the republic. 
Each city was to have its own commune, to levy taxes and make it;? laws, i. e.. to be 
a little republic, while all the communes were to form a sort of federal union repre- 
sented in the National Assembly, and thus resist the representatives from the 
rural districts. 



1873.] THE THIED REPUBLIC. 295 

The war indemnity was paid, and on September 6, 1873, the 
last German soldier recrossed the French frontier. But, 
meanwhile, a powerful opposition had arisen against Thiers 
in the Assembly.* Failing to secure the appointment of such 
ministers to his cabinet as he desired, lie was forced to resign, 
May 24, 1873. Marshal McMahon was elected the same 
evening in his place, and afterward (Nov. 19) his power was 
prolonged to seven years. Meantime, France is only a pro- 
visional republic, no constitution has been adopted, the 
powers of the President and the Assembly are almost dicta- 
torial,! while all titles are retained, even the President of the 
Eepublic signing himself Duke of Magenta. 

The Recuperative Power of the country has excited 
universal admiration. Trade has revived; specie has become 
abundant, and the premium on gold merely nominal ; the 
army has been reorganized, equipped and made effective; 
the educational system has been thoroughly revised; and 
provisions have been introduced for reaching the masses. 
The ruins of the commune are being removed ; the traces of 
war are fast disappearing; and to-day France is ready to 
compete for her old-time supremacy in European affairs. 

* The names applied to the different parties in the French Assembly are of inter- 
est. The Monarchists occupy the seats at the right of the President, and the Repub- 
licans those at the left. Political opinions deepen in shade from the centre outward. 
The occupants of the seats at the right of the centre isle— hence called the Eight 
Centre— are moderate or constitutional Monarchists ; those sitting next on the right 
are absolute Monarchists ; and the extreme right is the Clerical or Ultramontane 
party. At the left of the centre isle-hence called the Left Centre— are the very mod- 
erate [Republicans ; next the solid, determined Republicans ; and on the extreme 
left, the fire-eaters, the Reds, the Radicals, the Socialists, etc. Thus on both sides, 
the wings are radical, the centre conservative, and at the middle of each half sit the 
rear rank and file of the party. 

t For example, by a law of April 8th, Thiers secured to the government the power 
of appointing mayors of all cities having over 20,000 inhabitants. 



296 



EEVOLUTION AE Y FRANCE. 



[1875. 




A FEMALE COMMUNIST AT BAY. 



Manners and Customs of 
the Present Day. — The Com- 
munists in the late war burned 
the magnificent Hotel de Ville, 
destroyed the whole front of 
the Tuileries, made utter wreck 
of the public buildings along 
the Rue "de Rivoli,and left their 
hideous impress here and there 
over the whole city of Paris, 
yet the French capital is to- 
day the most beautiful city in 
Europe. The wide boulevards, 
lined with shops where exqui- 
site articles of vertu are ar- 
ranged with that perfection of 
taste which we call " French ; " 
the brilliantly decorated Cafes, 
shimmering with reflections 
from gilt ornaments in count- 
less mirrors ; the tete-a-tete 
tables on the side- walks behind which on chairs or benches sit the 
social Frenchmen and chat over their absinthe or eau-de-sucre ; the 
magnificent Louvre with its treasures of art on canvas and in marble ; 
the Rue de Rivoli with its stately colonnades ; the Place de la Con- 
corde, with its ornate fountains playing and skipping as gayly as if the 
terrible guillotine had never towered in its midst and scattered bloody 
spray as king and queen, princes and princesses, fair heads and gray, 
bowed and fell at its touch ; the Gardens of the Tuileries — the witness 
of so many terrors — where little children walk with their bonnes and 
play merry games under the trees, or push mimic boats across the little 
lake ; above all the Champs d'Elysees — true elysian fields — a wonder- 
ful avenue extending from the Place de la Concorde in a straight broad 
line to the Arc de Triomphe, Napoleon's honor to his victories ; all 
these, and scores of elegant buildings, churches and cathedrals, — some 
fresh with comparatively recent finish, some old and quaint with the 
rust of centuries and the mystery of over-hanging legends, — attract and 
fascinate the visitor. Born and bred in such an atmosphere of bril- 
liancy, with so much to delight the eye and intoxicate the senses, the 
true Parisian learns young to shed sorrow. Whatever cloud may 
hang over the country, whatever of doubt or peril or doom, the real 
Frenchman will not suffer his spirits to be depressed or his pleasures 
to be curtailed. He cultivates the little graces of life, neglects no op- 
portunity to bestow a compliment, and smooths over petty annoyances 



187o.] THE THIRD EEPUBLIC. 297 

with a suavity and nonchalance that takes away the sting of many a 
misfortune. This trait, so defective in our more serious and anxious 
American character, constitutes the great charm of French society. In 
manners and in conversation, tact and politeness mark the French gen- 
tleman or lady. An example will illustrate. One afternoon twenty 
years ago the old Due de Doudeauville was slowly coming down stairs 
when he met a young gentleman of twenty bounding up toward the 
drawing-room he had just quitted. On seeing each other, both stopped 
short. Both bowed low, both were bare-headed, neither would pass 
the other. ' ' Je vous en prie, Monsieur," said the duke, waving his hat 
toward the room above. '■' Jamais, Monsieur la Due," replied the other. 
After a half dozen polite entreaties from the senior and as many 
equally polite refusals by the junior, a happy inspiration came to the 
relief of the latter. With a smile, and bending to his knees, he stepped 
up, uttering the following beautiful sentiment : " I obey, Monsieur le 
Due ; obedience is the first duty of youth." 

The habit of living in flats is almost universal in Paris. Each flat 
or story has its own conveniences for housekeeping, and is complete in 
itself. Houses of five or six flats thus contain as many distinct fami- 
lies. The great doors opening into the common court on the ground 
floor are attended by a " concierge," without whose knowledge no one 
can leave or enter, so that a visitor is spared the annoyance of mount- 
ing several flights of stairs to seek some friend who may be absent. — 
A French breakfast consists of a long roll, fresh butter, and a cup of 
cafe-au-lait (coffee with milk) — often served in bed. At twelve o'clock 
is the dejeuner-d-la-fourchette, which includes soup, meats, and vege- 
tables. Dinner occurs generally at six o'clock, p.m., and consists of 
from five to ten courses, between each of which plates are changed. 
At hotels, the red wine of the country is usually furnished free of 
charge, and is placed upon the table, one bottle to every two persons. 
— The education of a French girl is very different from that of an 
American. She is never allowed to go into society, not even to appear 
on the street, without her mother or some older attendant. As to 
walking or riding alone with a young gentleman, it is a thing not to be 
mentioned to reputable ears. Marriages are contracted for by the' 
parents of the bride, her wishes being supposed to be entirely subject 
to their own. Marriage notices are not advertised in newspapers, as 
with us, but circulars or billets are issued on large" sheets of paper. 
Two of these are sent to each person whom the parties wish to remem- 
ber. One runs after this manner : " Monsieur and Madame A. have the 
honor to inform you of the marriage of Monsieur Alphonse A., their 
son, with Mademoiselle Julie B." The duplicate simply reverses the 
names thus : " Monsieur and Madame B. have the honor to inform you 
of the marriage of Mademoiselle Julie B., their daughter, with Mon- 



298 REVOLUTIONARY FRAKCE. [1875. 

sieur Alphonse A." To those invited to the wedding, eacli circular 
contains the additional' sentence, " and beg you to be present at the 

nuptial benediction which will be given to them on day, in 

church." Every couple, high or low, is obliged to go to the mayor's 
office to have the legal ceremony performed. That at the church is 
simply what the invitation purports, a "benediction," and may be 
received immediately, or after the lapse of some days, as desired. The 
law is very rigid in France in matrimonial affairs. It must first be 
understood that every birth is obliged to be registered within twenty- 
four hours by the mayor of the arrondissement wherein it occurs — it 
was formerly the law to take the child — with exact dates, station of 
parents, data of their birth, etc. When a couple wish to marry, a copy 
of this birth-registry must be taken to the mayor, and also a paper con- 
taining the consent of the parents of both parties to the proposed mar- 
riage. If the parents of a young man refuse, and he is twenty-five 
years of age, he can engage a lawyer to plead his case with them ; if 
they still withhold their consent, the lawyer has power to grant him a 
paper to be used in its stead. Banns are then published and posted in 
the arrondissement where each party resides. At the marriage cere- 
mony all the above papers are required to be read. It will thus be seen 
that "marriages in haste "are not compatible with French customs. 
The ceremonies at the church vary greatly, being graduated according 
to the expense desired by the parties. Thus a wedding in the aristo- 
cratic church of St. Roch is a costly affair ; especially if it be in the 
chapel dedicated to the Holy Virgin ; the length of the ceremony also 
depending upon the economy or extravagance of the parties. Funerals 
are regulated in the same manner, and one can be ordered at 25, 50, 
100 or 1000 francs, the feelings of the mourning relatives being often 
wrought upon to induce them to make as much display as possible. 
On grand funeral occasions the church-doors are hidden behind a mass 
of gloomy drapery, whereon appear the initials of the deceased and 
various emblems of sorrow. Black cloths are sometimes spread from 
the carriages, so that the ostentatious mourner may not for a moment 
lose sight of his affliction. In a spacious cathedral containing dif- 
ferent chapels, a wedding, a christening, and a funeral may often be 
witnessed at the same time. — It is only in the provinces of France that 
we now find glimpses of ancient and picturesque costume. The style 
of head-dress worn by Anne of Brittany is still in vogue among the 
peasant women of that country. Brittany itself, sparsely peopled, 
has many a quaint old town which stands almost as it stood in the 
middle ages. Among the sailors and fishermen in Finisterre, the old 
rich embroidered costumes are still much worn, and men in undressed 
sheep-skin cloaks, with long hair falling over their shoulders, remind 
the traveler of centuries gone by. The wars and conscriptions have 



1875.] THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 299 

greatly thinned the male population, but a conspicuous sight is the 
groups of market-women on a fine morning, hurrying along with their 
wares, pushing and beating their obstinate, over-laden donkeys with 
no gentle hand, and clad in white starched caps, short kirtles, coarse 
black hose, and enormous wooden sabots. Indeed the click-clank of 
these sabots is something almost deafening as one stands on the steps 
of some cathedral to see the crowd gather for religious service. In 
some parts of Brittany a custom is observed of disinterring a skull 
after a certain time, inscribing it with the names and titles of the 
deceased, and placing it in a niche in the church porch as a sort of 
monument ! Industries in these old towns are still carried on in the 
highways. Women walk through the streets spinning, with distaff 
under the arm, or knitting, while they balance loads of milk-jars or 
' piles of bread-loaves on their heads. In solid, out-door work, women 
take equal part with men. The Brittany farmer breakfasts on soup- 
generally milk-soup — at half-past four in the morning. From five to 
ten are working hours. Then comes the dinner, of buckwheat pan- 
cakes, or buckwheat porridge and milk. When milk fails, as it often 
does in winter, porridge is made of fermented oats. In the summer 
season, rest and sleep is taken from dinner-time till noon, when work 
is renewed. At three comes a luncheon of bread, or fried cakes, with 
milk or butter. At seven comes supper of soup and bacon. This is 
good farm living. In many a province, families subsist from year to 
year on less than a franc a day, paying nearly half of it for a pound of 
black bread, — a piece of meat being a luxury to be dreamed over, but 
not possessed. In the midst of such stolid poverty, how can education 
be a source of ambition ? A bit of cheese to soften coarse, black bread, 
may cause hungry eyes to glisten, but not till animal want is satisfied, 
and wages bear some adequate proportion to labor, can an ability to 
read and write be expected to possess one charm for the poor French 
peasant. 



d 



^uih, 



j-tljSTORJCyVL T^ECREy\TIOJ\l£ 



1. What French king never wore the crown except at his coronation ? __ 

2. What two kings owed their power to their conversion? i 

3. What was the " Battle of the Brothers " ? // ^m^?^ 

4. Describe the similarity which exists in the close of the first three 

lines of kings. ; 

5. How many Henrys were there among the kings of France? H~ 

6. How many French kings have surrendered to the Germans? 

7. Name the great battles fought between the French and the 

English. 

8. What three men of note perished during the Keligious Wars? 

9. What three great European monarchs were contemporaneous in 

the 16th century ? 

10. How many French kings have been dethroned ? ^ 

11. What century was the " age of the lawyers " ? / <j 

12. How many Revolutions have there been in France ? 

13. What king was styled " The father of the people " ? 

14. How many Johns have reigned in France ? 

15. Name the principal victories of Turenne. 

16. Who said, on his ascension to the throne, " The king of France takes 

no revenge on the enemies of the Duke of Orleans " ? 

17. Name the causes and effects, the duration, the principal battles, and 

the prominent generals of the " Seven Years War." 

18. What French king had the longest reign ? The shortest ? 

19. Which kings had the title of " Handsome," " Fai*r" etc. ? 

20. In what battle did the hungry soldiers throw away their bread for 

the sake of fighting ? 

21. To how many kings of France has a siege proved fatal? 

22. What was the " Day of the Herrings " ? 

23. Who was the " Grand Monarch " ? 

24. Name the best kings in the Capetian line. The Carlovingian line. 

25. Who was the " Well-beloved " ? KjJZI— 

26. What king became insane? Of^ A ^j£Av ~P r 7" r 

27. What kings had titles referring to physical qualities? To mental 

qualities ? 

28. What king came to the throne bearing five coffins? *^ 

29. What king used to wear images of saints, angels, etc., in his cap ? 

30. What marriage laid the foundation of the rivalry between the houses 

of Austria and France ? 



iV FRENCH HISTORY. 

31. What battle did Turenne gain by a winter march over the snow- 

clad mountains? 

32. Describe the battles of Fontenay and Fontenoy. 

33. Compare Richelieu and Wolsey. 

34. How many great battles did Napoleon lose ? 

35. Name the causes, effects, duration, principal battles, and prominent 

generals of the " War of the Spanish Succession." 

36. What event in English history did Napoleon's dispersion of the 

Five Hundred resemble ? 

37. What king said " If honor perish from the rest of the world, it 

should survive in the breasts of kings " ? 

38. Tell the story of Jeanne Dare — the Maid of Orleans. 

30. How many coalitions leading to war have been made against France ? 

40. How many years have the descendants of Capet occupied the throne 

of France ? 

41. How many years has the government of France been a republic? 

An empire? 

42. What monarch was styled " The King of the Barricades " ? 

43. What was the famous "Oath of Strasburg"? What interest is 

connected with it ? 

44. Name the great battles of Conde. 

45. In how many great battles were the Austrians defeated by Napoleon ? 

46. What French king made the first invasion of Italy ? The last ? 

47. How many so-called • " Battles of the Spurs " have there been? 

48. When did the Germans first invade France ? 

49. Who were the " do-nothing kings " ? 

50. Who was Charles X. ? Louis XVII. ? 

51. Name the great victories of Luxembourg. 

52. Describe the two devastations of the Palatinate. 

53. What victories did the Prince of Orange win over the French ? 

54. How is Anne of Brittany's story allied to that of Mary of Burgundy ? 

55. What impress did the Romans give to the Gallic character ? The 

Teutons ? The Normans ? 

56. Whence did the French derive their love of a strong, centralized 

government ? 

57. Bound France at the ascension of Capet. 

58. What was the origin of the power of the French cities ? 

59. What curious story is told of Rollo's doing homage for his fiei ? 

60. What were the Capitularies of Charlemagne.? 

61. Name some incident of the battle of Ivry. fa : " 

62. Give the causes, effects, duration, principal battles, and prominent 

generals of the " Hundred Years War." 

63. What English general, eighty years old, died on the last battle- 

field of this war ? 



HISTOEICAL RECREATIONS. V 

64. What was the League of the Hague? 

65. Of what queen was it said " The French language has only five 

words, The queen is so good " ? 

66. Name some Italians who have attained great prominence in French 

politics. 

67. What child-kings have occupied the throne of France ? 

68. What was the Quadruple Alliance ? 

69. What great general won a battle while his king was being borne 

to the tomb ? 

70. Illustrate how often, in French history, a strong king has been fol- 

lowed by a weak one. 

71. For what are the dates, June 20, July 14, August 10, and September 

2-6, memorable in the French Revolution ? 

72. What were the Dragonades ? 

73. Whom did Louis XIV. marry ? Louis XV. ? Louis XVI. ? 

74. Who was Madame Roland ? jj^ q^ £^; ^^J^J 

75. Show how, in the French Revolution, the bourgeoisie overthrew the 

court and the privileged classes ; the mob, the bourgeoisie; and 
finally, the reaction crushed the mob ? 

76. Explain the following sentence used by a historian : " Pope Gregory 

XIII. saw in Henry III. a second Louis V., and in Henry Duke 
of Guise, a new Hugh Capet." 

77. What French king was accustomed to go around buying paroquets ? M '' 

78. What king married a Russian princess ? 

79. For what is Francis I. noted in history ? Louis XIV. ? Louis XV. ? 

Henry IV. ? 

80. What was the characteristic trait of Louis IX.? Henry III.? 

Charles V. ? Philip II. ? 

81. Of what service to France was Louis XI. ? 

82. What male king was the son of an excellent father, father of an ex- 

cellent son, and husband of an excellent wife? **<Z<FUS*# —X-LLL— 

83. What great events occurred in the time of Philip I. ? 

84. What French kings reigned during the time of the Crusades ? 

85. How many took part in them ? 

86. What was the Renaissance ? 

87. What was the " Day of the Dupes " ? 

83. Who were the three great French Ministers of Finance ? 

89. What dying warning did Francis I. give his son ? 

90. What French kings reigned during the time of the Hundred Years 

War ? J 

,91. What king was the first man in Europe, but the second in France ^Zt 

92. What was the " Year of Corbie " ? 

93. Why are there so many French artisans in England ? 

94. Who said he did not make peace like a merchant? 

95. Who was " Corporal Violet " ? g^'^ i s^ ^y4^r^^v^^ ^H 



Yl FRENCH HISTORY. 

96. Who was the " bravest of the brave " ? 

97. When did a charge of a small body of cavalry decide a great 

battle ? 

98. How many times have foreign armies taken Paris ? 

99. What was the Holy Alliance ? 

100. What is meant by the " Three days of July " ? 

101. W T hat two kings were out hunting when a revolution was im- 

pending ? 

102. Who was the first king of the French ? 

103. Who was the last king of France ? 

104. What two great generals and statesmen died during a tempest ? 

105. What were the causes of the Revolution of 1789 ? 1830 ? 1848 ? 

1871 ? Effects of each ? 

106. Who was the " Little Corporal " ? 

107. What was the " Tennis-court oath " ? 

108. What was the cause of the downfall of Napoleon I. ? Napoleon III. ? 

109. Where was the last States-General held ? 

110. What was the origin of the tricolor ? 

111. Where are the keys of the Bastille ? 

112. What were the assignats ? 

113. What was the origin of the French National Guards? 

114. Did any of the royal family who left the Tuileries for the Assem- 

bly, Aug. 10, 1792, ever enter the palace again ? 

115. What was the first victory of the French Republic? Its effect ? 

116. Should Louis XVI. be blamed for the Revolution ? 

117. How many times did Napoleon enter Vienna as a conqueror ? 

118. What battle did Napoleon lose on account of the rise of a river 

in his rear ? 

119. What was the " Battle of the Nations" ? 

120. What was the " Day of the Sections " ? 

121. What was the " Seven Years War " called in America ? 

122. What battle was decided by a wonderful charge under Macdonald ? 

123. What great capitals of Europe did Napoleon enter in triumph ? 

124. What were " Steinkirk Cravats " ? 

125. What was Napoleon's first great victory ? His last ? 

126. What German emperor married a French princess, and yet never 

saw his bride ? ^ * -^ 

127. When was a '■' bump of the head " fatal to a king ? 

128. What was the Concordat? 

129. What was the Perpetual Peace ? 

130. What were the Annates ? 

131. What king spoke of his successor as "a big boy who would spoil 

all " ? 

132. What was the Pragmatic Sanction ? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. Vll 

133. What two great monarchs once wrestled and changed clothes, like 

schoolboys ? 

134. What three kings in succession led great armies into Italy? 

135. Who was the chevalier " without fear and without reproach " ? 
13G. What king sent his own sons to prison in order to release himself? 

1 37. Who was the " Dumb Captain " ? 

138. In what contest were there four Henrys engaged ? 

139. Who was called "Monsieur" in France? 

140. Who was styled the ' ' King of Paris " ? 

141. Who led the first French expedition into Italy? State its effect. 

142. What great king, when dauphin, ran away from battle like a 

coward ? 

143. Who was the Black Prince ? 

144. Illustrate how dependent upon its king France was, during the 

middle ages. 

145. What great war was marked by the capture of a king and a pope, 

and the sack of Rome ? 

146. What kings left each three sons to reign? 

147. Who was " Le Balafre " ? 

148. Which Charles was called " the victorious " ? 

149. Name the principal battles of Napoleon I. 

150. Give an account of Napoleon at the Bridge of Lodi. 

151. What were the Berlin decrees ? 

152. On all the public buildings in Paris are inscribed the words — '■ 

" Liberte, Egalite, Equalite." When and where did this motto 
take its rise ? 

153. Illustrate Charles VII. 's apathy. Louis XL's cruelty. Henry IV. 's 

good humor. Louis XIV. 's dignity. Louis IX.'s goodness. 
Charles IX.'s weakness. Napoleon I.'s despotism. Francis I.'s 
bravery. Philip II. 's ambition. Henry Ill's buffoonery. 
Louis XV.'s profligacy. Philip IV. 's unscrupulousness. 

154. Who was the " Bastard of Orleans "? 

155. After what battle were a large number of soldiers drowned by the 

breaking of the ice under a shower of cannon balls? 

156. In what siege was Buonaparte a captain of artillery? 

157. What peculiar tactics did Napoleon adopt at Marengo? 

158. What is meant by the " sun of Austerlitz " ? 

159. Who raised the first standing army in France? 

160. When Louis XL met Edward IV. of England, we read that " being 

mindful of the catastrophe of Montereau, he took great pains 
to guard against treachery." Explain. 

161. What French king first obtained the title of " His Most Christian 

Majesty " ? 

162. Who was the lady of Beaujeu ? 

163. What queens of France were divorced? 



Vlll FEENCH HISTOEY. 

164. When, where, and between whom was the battle of Guinegate 

fought? Steinkirk? Sens? Blenheim? Jena? Pa^via? 
Waterloo ? Wagram ? Oudenarde ? 

165. What monarch persecuted the Protestants in France, and pro- 

tected them in Germany ? 

166. What monarch wore high-heeled shoes ? 

167. What is meant by the elder and the younger branches of the 

Bourbons ? 

168. What were the Reform banquets ? 

169. What became of Napoleon I.'s son? 

170. Of Louis' XVI. 's son? 

171. What relation was Napoleon III. to Napoleon I. ? 

172. Explain the coup d'etat of December 2. 

173. What were the causes of the riots of June '51 ? 

174. Why was Gen. Cavaignac called the " saver of France " ? 

175. What is meant by the " Constitution of the year VIII." ? 

176. Who was the "prisoner of Ham"? 

177. Who was the "exile of St. Helena " ? 

178. Duruy says, " Napoleon III. was not a royal do-nothing." Ex- 

plain the allusion. • 

179. What was the cause of the long hatred between England and 

France ? 

180. Who is styled Napoleon IV. ? 

181. Who is styled Henry V. ? 

182. Explain the calendar adopted during the French Revolution. 

183. Describe the retreat from Moscow. 

184. What king was mocked by magpies ? 

185. What was the duration of the so-called Hundred Years War ? 

186. Who was Napoleon II. ? 

187. What kings were assassinated ? 

188. What king occupied a different bed every night ? >A V3^ 

189. Illustrate the love of the soldiers for Napoleon I. 

190. What king was killed in a tournament ? 

191. Who said he " would rather have his people laugh at his economy 

than weep over his taxes " ? 

192. What were the " Spanish marriages " ? 

193. Who was the " Citizen king " ? 

194. Give an account of the assassination of the Duke of Berri. Its 

political importance. 

195. Why was Louis Philippe called a tyrant by the republicans, a 

usurper by the legitimists, and an illegal ruler by the Buona- 
partists ? 

196. What was the " Infernal machine " ? 

197. What was the Treaty of Paris ? Vienna? Presburg? Luneville? 

Amiens ? Campo Formio ? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. IX 

198. What was the League of Cambrai ? 

199. Who said " He who loves me follows me " ? 

200. How many times has France been declared a republic? 

201. What is meant by " The Revolution " ? " The Hundred Days " ? 

" The Restoration " ? 

202. To what line of kings did Charles V. belong? Henry IV? 

Louis XV. ? Charles the Simple ? 

203. Who is the Count of Chambord ? What relation is he to the fam- 

ous Egalite of the Revolution ? 

204. What was the Mountain ? 

205. Give an account of the Mississippi Scheme. 

206. Who was the "phantom Charles X."? 

207. Which kings were the most despotic ? 

208. Who were the Girondists ? 

209. Who was the "Btarnois"? 

210. Give an account of the death of the Duke d'Enghien. 

211. What was a bed of justice? 

212. What infant in his cradle received the title of the "King of Rome" ? 

213. In what battle were spurs of more service than swords? 

214. Who were the Leaguers ? 

215. For what is Neckar noted ? 

216. What was the " Day of the Barricades " ? 

217. In what century was the " Age of Louis XIV." ? 

218. Who suppressed the Templars? 

219. Who were styled " The Monkeys " ? 

220. Who was the " King of Bourges " ? 

221. What king pawned a lady's jewels to get money to carry on a war ? 

222. What was the " ninth Thermidor " ? 

223. Name the great men who clustered about the throne of Louis XIV. 

224. What women have exerted a great influence on French history ? 

225. For what is Malmaison noted ? Fontainebleau ? 

226. What two kings reigned the same number of years ? 

227. Who were the" " Knitters " ? 

228. In what did Louis Philippe differ from all other French monarchs? 

229. What are " Lettres de cachet " ? 

230. What dynasties ended with the reigns of three brothers ? 

231. Who was the " King of the Gentlemen" ? 

232. What king married Mary, afterward Queen of Scots ? 

233. What great minister was buried at night ? 

234. What were the last words of Louis XIV. ? Francis I. ? Napoleon I. ? 

235. What encomium did Edward III. pass on Charles V. ? 

236. What was the "La Jeunesse Doree"? 

237. Name the kings of the fourteenth century. The eighteenth. 

238. Who was king of France in 1066 ? 1572? 1648 ? 1776 ? 



GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 



GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF TtjE JJEROYINGIJ^N DYNASTY. 



Thierry I., 
k. of Metz. 



Caribert, 
k. of Paris 
(ob. 567). 



Cloclion 

(427-448). 

Meroveus 

(448-458). 

Childeric I. 
(458-481). 

Clovis 

(481-511). 

I 



Chlodomir, 
k. of Orleans. 



Childebert I. 
k. of Paris. 



Clotaire I., 

k. of Soissons, 

sole king 

(558-561). 



Goritran, 
k. of Burgundy. 



I 

Sigeberfc I., 

k. of Austrasia 

(ob. 575). 

Childebert II., 
k. of Austrasia 
and Burgundy. 



Childeric I., 

k. of Soissons 

(ob. 584). 

Clotaire II., 
sole king 
(613-628). 



Theodebert, 

k. of Austrasia 

(ob. 612). 



Thierry II., 

k. of Burgundy 

(ob. 613)). 



Dagobert I. 
sole king 
(628-638). 



Sigebert II., 
k. of Austrasia. 



Dagobert II., 
k. of Austrasia. 



Clotaire TV., 

k. of Austrasia 

(ob. 719). 



Clovis II. 
(638-656). 



I 

Caribert, 

k. of Aquitaine. 



Boggis, 
d. of Aquitaine. 

Eudes, 
d. of Aquitaine 

(888-735). 



Clotaire III., 

k. of Neustria, 

(656-670). 



Childeric II., 
k. of Austrasia. 



Thierry III., 
k. of Burgundy. 



Clovis 
(673-674). 



Childeric II. Clovis III. 



Childeric III. 

(742-752), 
deposed by Pepin le Bref. 



Childebert III 
(695-711). 

Dagobert III. 
(711-715). 

Thierry IV. 

(720-737). 



GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 



XI 



GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE C4RLOVINGI4NS. 



Pepin of Landen, 

mayor of the palace in Austrasia 

(ob. 639). 



Grimoald 
(ob. 656). 



Arnulf, 
brother of Pepin. 



Drogo, 
d. of Champagne. 



Begga = Anseghis. 



Pepin of Heristal, 

d. of the Franks 

(ob. 714). 

I 



Grimoald, 
mayor in Meustria. 



Charles Martel 
(ob. 741). 



Carloman, 
becomes a monk 

(747). 



I 

Pepin le Bref, 

k. of the Franks 

(752). 

Charlemagne 

(788-814). 

I 

Louis le Debonnaire 

(814-840). 



Grypho 
(ob. 753). 



Lothaire, 
emperor 
(ob. 855). 



Louis II., 
emperor 
(ob. 875). 



Lothaire, 

k. of 
Lorraine 
(ob. 869). 



Charles, 

k. of 
Burgundy 

and 
Provence 
(ob. 863). 



Pepin 
(ob. ~~ 



Pepin II. , 

k. of 
Aquitaine. 



Louis the Charles the 
German Bald, 

(ob. 876). k. of France, 
(ob. 877). 



Charles 
the Fat, 

k. and 
emperor 
(ob. 888). 



Louis 
le Begue 
(ob. 879). 



Xll 



GENEALOGICAL TABLES 



GENEALOGICAL TJJBLE OF TIJE C^PETI^N DYNASTY. 

I. Feom the Accession of Hugh Capet to the Accession of the 
House of Valois. 

Robert the Strong, count of Anjou, ob. 867. 



Eudes, count of Paris, 
king, 888-898. 



Robert, duke of France, 
ob. 923. 



Hugh le Grande or le Blanc, 
duke of France and count of Paris, 
ob. 956. 



Emma = Rodolph, king of France. 



Hugh Capet, king, 987-996. 
Robert, king, 996-1031. 



Hugh, crowned in his father's 
lifetime (ob. 1026). 



Henry I., 
king, 1031-1060. 

Philip I., king, 1060-1108. 

Louis VI. (le Gros), king, 1108-1137. 

Louis VII. (de Jeune), king, 1137-1180. 

Philip II. (Augustus), king, 1180-1223. 

Louis VIII., king, 1223-1226. 



Robert, duke of Burgundy 



Louis IX. (St. Louis) 
king, 1226-1270. 

I 



Charles, count of Anjou and Provence, 
founder of the royal house of Naples. 



Philip III. (le Hardi), 
king, 1270-1285. 

I 



Robert, count of Clermont, 
founder of the house of Bourbon. 



Philip IV. (le Bel), 
king, 1285-1314. 



Charles, count of Valois, 
founder of the house of Valois. 



Louis X. (le Hutin), 
king, 1314-1316. 



Jeanne, m. Philip, 

king of Navarre, 

ob. 1349. 

Charles, 
king of Navarre. 



Philip V. (le Long), 
king, 1316-1322. 



iV. 



Charles IV. (le Bel), 
king, 1322-1328. 



Isabella, 

m. Edward II. of 

England. 

Edward III. of 
England. 



II. House of Valois. 

Philip VL-Charles VIII. 1328-1498. 

III. House of Valois-Oeleans. c 

Louis XII.— Henry III. 1498-1589. 

IV. House of Bourbon. 

Henry IV.— Charles X. 1589-1.93 ; and 1814-1830. 
V. House of Orleans. 

Louis Philippe, 1830-1848. 



GENEALOGICAL TABLES Xlll 



GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE FjOUSE OF Y^LOIS. 

Charles, count of Valois, younger son of King Philip III. 

Philip VI., king, 1328-1350. 

John (le Bon), king, 1350-13G4. 
^J 

I t " I I 

Charles V. (le Sage), Louis, duke of Anjou, John, duke Philip, d. of Burgundy, 
king, 1364-1389. founder of the 2d royal of Berry. ob. 1404 

house of Naples. (see below). 



I I . 

Charles VI. (le Bien-aime), king, 1380-1423 Louis, dukb of Orleans, 

= Isabella of Bavaria. assassinated 1407, 

founder of the line of Valois-Orleans. 

Louis, John, Charles VLT. Isabella Catharine 

ob. 1415. ob. 1416. (le Victorieux), = 1. Richard II. of England. = Henry V. 
king, 1422-1461. 2. Duke of Orleans. of England. 



Louts XL, king, 1461-1483. Charles, duke of Berry. Four daughters. 

Charles VIII., king, Anne = Jeanne = 

1483-1498. Sire de Beaujeu. Duke of Orleans. 

afterward Louis XIL 



GENEALOGICAL T^BLE OF TrjE SECOND DUC^L rjOUSE OF 
BURGUNDY. 

John, king of France, inherits the duchy as nearest heir male of the late Duke 
Philippe de Rouvre, 1361. 

Philip, fourth son of King John, created Duke of Burgundy, 1364. 

Jean sans Peur, killed at Montereau, 1419. 

Philip (le Bon), ob. 1467. 

Charles (le Temeraire), ob. 1477. 

Mary, duchess of Burgundy = Maximilian, archduke of Austria. 

Philip, archduke of Austria, = Juana, heiress of Castile and Aragon. 
and sovereign of the Netherlands, I 
ob. 1506. I 

Charles V., king of Spain, sovereign of the Netherlands, and emperor, 1519. 



XIV 



GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 




GENEALOGICAL TABLES, 



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XVI GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 

GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE IJOUSE OF BOURBON. 

Eobert, count of Clermont = Beatrice, heiress of Bourbon, 1212. 
younger son of St. Louis. I 



Louis, duke of Bourbon, ob. 1341. 



Peter, duke of Bourbon, James, count de la Marche. 

ancestor of the Constable | 

Charles, duke of Bourbon. John, count de la Marche = Catharine, heiress of VendOme. 

Louis, count of Vendome, ob. 1447. 

John, count of Vend<5me, ob. 1477. 



I I 

Francis, count of Vend6me. Louis, prince of La Roche-sur-Yon 
= Louisa, countess of Montpensier. 
| This branch became extinct 1608. 

Charles, first duke of VcndOme. 

Antoine, duke of Vend6me= Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, ob. 1572. 

Henry IV., kins: of France and Navarre, ob. 1589-1610. 
= 1. Marguerite de Valois, d. of Henry II. 
2. Mary de'Medici. 



Louis XIII. , king, 

1610-1643=Anne 

of Austria, d. of 

Philip III. of Spain. 



Gaston, duke of 


Elizabeth 


Christiana 


Henrietta Maria 


Orleans, 


= Philip IV. 


=duke of 


= Charles I. 


ob. 1650. 


of Spain, 


Savoy, 


of England, 




ob. 1664. 


ob. 1663. 


ob. 1669. 



Louis XIV., king, 1643-1715 Philip, duke of Orleans 

=Maria Theresa, d. of (founder of the branch of Bourbon-Orleans), 

Philip IV. of Spain. ob. 1701. 

Louis, the dauphin, ob. 1711= Mary Anne Christine Victoire of Bavaria. 



Philip V of Spain. 



Louis, duke of Burgundy, 

ob. 1712=Mary Adelaide 

of Savoy. 



Louis XV,, king, 1715-1744= Mary Leczynska of Poland. 



Charles, duke of Berry, 
ob. 1714. 



Louis, the dauphin, ob. 1765. 



Six daughters. 



Louis XVI., 

king, 1774-1793 

= Marie Antoinette 

of Austria. 

I 



Louis Stanislas Xav : 
count of Provence, 
afterward Louis XVTII. 

king, 1814-1824. 



I | 

Charles Philip, Three 

ount of Artois, daughters, 
afterward Charles X.. 
king, 1824-1830, ob. 1836. 
I 



Maria Theresa Louis XVII. 
= Louis, duke never reigned, 
of Ansouleme. ob. 1795. 



Louis, duke of Charles Ferdinand, duke of 
Angouleme Berry, assassinated, Feb. 1820. 
= Maria Theresa, 
daughter of Louis XVI. 



Henry, duke of Bordeaux, 
comic de Chambord— "Henry V," 



Louisa, 
duchess of Pan 



GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 



XV11 



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GENEALOGICAL TABLES 



FEUDAL STATES OF SOUTHERN FRANCE. 



A. D. 



819 
839 
852 

872 

878 



1036 
1052 

1271 

1422 



TOULOUSE 

(Count). 



Raymond I. 



wlio lias 



twelve 



GOTHIA or 
NARBONNE 

(Duke or Marquis), 



Bernard I. dies, 

five beneficiary 

dukes 

to 

Bernard III. 

William the Pious 
dies childless, 918 
the duchy falls to 
Toulouse. 



successors, 



to 



Raymond VII., who cedes half to 
Louis IX., and half to his daugh- 
ter, who marries the brother of 
St. Louis, and he, dying childless 
leaves the rest to Philip HI 
(1271). 



GUIENNE or 
AQUITAINE 

(Duke). 



Rainulf (son of 
Bernard II. of 

Gothia), 

eleven heredi- 
tary 

dukes to 

William X, 

(whose daugh- 
ter Alienor m. 
Henry, Count of 
Anjou, and King 
of England. 

The duchy finally ceded to 
France under Charles VII. 



GASCONY 

(Duke). 

Lupus I., 
four Dukes to 

Waiffer, 
five bene- 
ficiary 
dukes 
to 

Sancho 
Milarra, 

seven heredi- 
tary 

dukes 

to 

Berenger 

(who dies 
childless, and 
Gascony falls 
to Aquitaine). 



ABSOKPTION OF STATES. 



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XX 



AUDITIONS TO FRENCH MONARCHY. 



SUCCESSIVE ADDITIONS TO THE FRENCH 
MONARCHY. 



Late. 

1068 
1032 
1100 

1183 

1185 
1203 



1205 
1209 

1229 

1233 
1255 
1257 

1270 

1285 



1343 



District. 



Gatinais 
French Vexin 
Bourges 

Vermandois, Amiens 



Valois 

Touraine, Anjou, 
Maine, Poitou 



Saintonge 

Normandy 
Auvergne 

Beziers, Narbonne, 
Nimes, Velay, Al- 
bigeois 

Blois, Chartres 

Gevaudan 

Perche 

Languedoc. Vivarais, 
Rouergue 

Champagne and Brie 

Lyonnais 

Dauphine 



King. 



Philip I. 



Philip Augustus 



St. Louis (IX.) 



Philip III. 
Philip IV. 

Philip VI. 



Circumstances. 



Acquired from Fulk of Anjou. 

Acquired from Simon of Valois. 

Bought of Herpin its Count going 
on Crusade. 

Taken from Philip of Flanders, on 
his wife's death. 

Ditto. 

Confiscated from King John of 
England. [Permanently ac- 
quired by St. Louis, 1258] . 

Confiscated from King John of 
England. [Ceded at Bretigny, 
1380, to England; reconquered 
by Charles V. and Charles VII.] 

Taken by conquest from King 
John of England. 

Confiscated from Guy its Count. 
[Finally secured to the Crown 
by Louis XIII.] 

After Albigensian war. 



Bought from Thibault of Cham- 
pagne. 

Bought from Count of Barcelona. 
[Confirmed to Philip IV., 1306.] 

Fell in on extinction of the 
Perche family. 

On extinction of the House of St. 

Gilles. 

By marriage with the heiress. 

By agreement with the Archbishop 
and Burghers. 

Bought from the last Dauphin of 
Vienne. 



Date. 

1370 

1453 
1479 

1487 
1523 

1531 

1547 

1548 
1552 
1589 

1601 
1648 

1659 

1665 

1668 

1678 

1681 

1684 
1766 



ADDITIONS TO FRENCH MONARCHY. XXI 
District. King. Circumstances. 



Limousin 

Guienne and Gascony 

Burgundy 

Marche 

Provence 

An«?oumois, Forez, 
Beaujolais 

Bourbon and Dau- 
phin e d'Auvergne 

Brittany 



Coniniinges 

Trois-Ev§ches [Metz, 
Verdun, Toul] 

Beam, Navarre, Bi- 
gorre, Foix, Ar- 
magnac 

Bresse and Bugey 



Alsace 

Roussillon and Artois 

Nivernois 

Flanders and Hain- 

ault 
Franche-Comte 

Strasburg 

Charolais 
Lorraine 



Charles V. 



Charles VII. 



Louis XI. 



Francis I. 



Charles VIII. and 
Louis XII. 

and Francis I. 



Henry II. 
Henry IV. 



Louis XIII. and 
Louis XIV. 



Louis XIV. 



Louis XV. 



Conquered from the English. 
[Vise, of Limoges secured 
finally under Henry IV.] 

Conquered from the English. 



Annexed on death of Charles the 
Rash, Duke of Burgundy. 

Confiscated from the House of 
Armagnac. 

On death of the last Count. 

Patrimony. 

Confiscated from the Constable 
de Bourbon. 

By marriage with Anne of Brit- 
tany. 

By marriage with the daughter 
of Anne of Brittany. 

On extinction of the Comminges 
family. 

Secured to France by the Treaty 
of Westphalia, 1648. 

Patrimony. 



Exchanged against Saluces with 
the Duke of Savoy. 

By conquest from Germany. Se- 
cured to France by the Treaty 
of Westphalia, 1648. 

By conquest. Secured by the 
Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659. 

On extinction of the Mvernois 
family. 

Secured by the Treaty of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

Secured by the Treaty of Nim- 

wegen. 
Secured by Treaty of Ryswick, 

1697. 
Confiscated from Spain. 
Secured by Treaty of Vienna, 1815. 



XX11 



HOUSES OF LORRAINE AND GUISE. 



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CLAIMS TO SPANISH SUCCESSION. xxiii 



CL4INIS TO TrjE SPpSFj SUCCESSION. 



(1.) Claim op France. 
Louis XIV. = Maria Theresa, d. of Philip IV. of Spain. 

Louis, Dauphin = Maria Anna of Bavaria. 
I 

Louis, duke of Burgundy. Philip, duke of Anjou, Charles, duke of Berry. 

King of Spain as Philip V., 
Nov., 1700. 
Louis XV. 



(2.) Claim of Bavarl.. 

Leopold I., Emperor = Maria Margarita, younger d. of Philip IV. of Spain. 

Maria Antonia, Archduchess = Maximilian, elector of Bavaria. 

Joseph Ferdinand, electoral prince of Bavaria, 
declared heir to the Spanish throne, 1698 ; oh. Feb. 6, 1699. 



13.) Claim of Austria. 

Maria Anna, younger d. of = Ferdinand III., Emperor. 
Philip III. of Spain. 

Leopold I., Emperor = Maria Margarita, d. of Philip IV. 



Joseph I., Emperor, 1705. Charles Francis Joseph, 

declared King of Spain, 1700 ; 
Emperor, 1711. 



XX1Y 



CpONOLOGIG^L TJJBLE OF TrjE FRENCty KINGS. 
[see the genealogical tables. 



KINGS OF THE FRANKS. 

MEROVINGIAN LINE. 



A. D. 

481. 


Clovis. 


511. 


Thierry, Chlodomlr, Childebert I., Clotaire. 


559. 


ClOtaire. 


561. 


CARIBERT, GrONTRAN, CHILPERIC I., SlGEBERT. 


584. 


Childebert II. 


596. 


Theodebert, Thierry II., Clotaire II. 


628. 


Dagobert I. 


638. 


Clovis II., Sigebert II. . 


656. 


Clotaire III., Childeric II. \ 


673. 


Thierry III., Dagobert II. J 


691. 


Clovis III. / 


695. 


Childebert III. \ Faineants. 


711. 


Dagobert III. ( _^-- 


715. 


Chilperic II. 1 


720. 


Thierry IV. J 


742. 


Childeric III. / 




CARLOVINGIAN line. 


752. 


Pepin. 


768. 


Charlemagne. 


814. 


Louis (le Debonnaire). 




KINGS OF FRANCE. 


843. 


Charles (the Bald). 


877. 


Louis (the Stammerer). 


879. 


Louis III., and Carloman. 


884. 


Charles (the Fat of Germany). 


892. 


Charles III. (the Simple). . 


936. 


Louis IV. (d'outre-mer). 


954. 


LOTHAIRE. 


986. 


Louis V. (the Idle). 




CAPETIAN LINE. 


987. 


Hugh Capet. 


996. 


Robert. 


1031. 


Henry I. 


1060. 


Philip I. 



FRENCH KINGS. XXV 



AD. 
1108. 


Louis VI. (the Fat). 


1137. 


Louis VII. (the Young). 


1180. 


Philip II. (Philip Augustus). 


1223. 


Louis VIII. 


1226. 


Louis IX. (Saint Louis). 


1270. 


Philip III. (the Hardy). 


1285. 


Philip IV. (the Handsome). 


1S14. 


Louis X. (le Hutin, or Quarrelsome). 


1316. 


Philip V. (the Long). 


1822. 


Charles IV. (the Handsome). 




VALOIS BRANCH. 


1328. 


Philip VI. (de Valois). 


1350. 


John (the Good-natured). 


1364. 


Charles V. 


1380. 


Charles VI. 


1422. 


Charles VII. 


1461. 


Louis XI. 


1483. 


Charles VIII. 




VALOIS-ORLEANS. 


1498. 


Louis XII. 




VALOIS-ANGOULEME. 


1515. 


Francis I. 


1547. 


Henry II. 


1559. 


Francis II. 


1560. 


Charles IX. 


1574. 


Henry III. 




BOURBON BRANCH. 


1589. 


Henry IV. 


1610. 


Louis XIII. 


1643. 


Louis XIV. 


1715. 


Louis XV. 


1774. 


Louis XVI. 


1793. 


The First Republic. 


1804. 


The First Empire — Napoleon. 


1814. 


Louis XVIII. 


1824. 


Charles X. 



KING OF THE FRENCH. 

BOURBON-ORLEANS. 

1830. Louis Philippe. 
1848. The Second Republic. 

1852. The Second Empire. 

.1870. The Third Republic. 



I: ¥ $ % % • 



Abd-el-Kadek, 278. 
Abelard, 71. 
Aboukir, battle of, 229. 
Acre, siege of, 229. 
Agnadello, battle of, 110. 
Aix, 10. 
Aix-la-Chapelle, 25. 

u treaty of, 163, 181. 
Albi, 51. 
Albigenses, 51. 
Alcuin, 25, 35. 
Alencon, Duke of, 75. 
Alexander, the Emperor, 242. 
Algeria, 278. 
Allodial lands, '32. 
Alsace, 154. 

Amboise, conspiracy of, 126. 
America, war in, 187. 
Amiens, peace of, 238. 
Ancients, council of, 220. 
Angouleme, Duke of, 112. 
Anjou, Duke of, 83, 133. 
Annates, 114. 
Anne of Austria, 149, 152. 

" " Beaujeu, 99. 

" " Brittany, 101, 108, 109. . 
Aquitaine, 23, 40. 
Arc, Joan of, 89. 
Arcole, 225. 
Arians, 14. 
Armagnacs, 88. 
Arques, battle of, 136. 
Arras, treaties of, 93, 93. 
Aspern, battle of, 247. 
Assembly, Constituent, 198. 
" Legislative, 208. 
" National, 213. 
Assignats, 207. 
Attila, 12. 

Augsburg, League of, 169. 
Augustus, Philip II., 47. 
Austerlitz, battle of, 244. 
Austrasia, 13, 19. 
Avignon, 52, 65. 
Azincourt, 86. 

Baillt, 202, 
Balafre,le, 132. 
Banquets, political, 279. 
Barbarossa, 118. 
Barras, 221. 
Barricades, day of the, 153. 



Barri, Countess du, 181. 
Barthelemy, 231. 

Bartholomew, St, , massacre of, 130. 
Bassano, battle of, 225. 
Bastille, 175, 201. 
Bautzen, battle of, 256. 
Bayard, 113. 
Bazaine, 290. 
Beam, 128. 

Bearnois (Henry of Navarre), 128. 
Beauharnais, Eugene de, 223. 
Beaujeu, lady of. 99. 
Becket, Thomas a, 47. 
Bed of justice, 154. 
Benedictine monks, 31. 
Beresina, passage of the, 255. 
Berlin decrees, 245. 
Bernard, St., passage of, 236. 
Bernadotte, Marshal, 251. 
Berri, Duke of, 83. 
Bertha, wife of Robert; 38. 
Bertrand du Guesclin, 81. 
Biron, Marshal, 146. 
Black death, 70. 
Blanche of Castille, 52. 
Blenheim, battle of, 172. 
Blois, castle of, 134. 
Bliicher, General, 258. 
Boniface, Pope, 64. 
Borgia, Caesar, 110. 
Borodino, battle of, 254. 
Bossuet, 167. 
Boufflers, Marshal, 172. 
Bourbon, Antoine de (King of Navarre). 
126, 128. 

" Constable de, 115, 117. 

" Cardinal of, 136. 
Duke of, 177. 
Houce of, 136. 
Bourdaloue, 167. 
Bourgeois, 57, 69, 149. 
Bouvines, battle of, 49. 
Bretigny, treaty of, 79. 
Brienne, de, Archbishop, 190. 
Brittany, 23, 101. 
Bruges, 62. 
Brunehaut^ 19, 
Buonaparte, Napoleon, 221. 
Burgundians, 12, 14, 86. 
Burgundy, 96. 

" Duke of, Jean sans Peur, 86. 

11 " Philip the Bold, 95, 96. 



INDEX 



XXV11 



Burgundy, Duke of, Philip the Good, 88. 
Mary of, 98. 

Cadotjdal, Georges, 239. 

Caesar, Julius, 11. 

Calais, 75, 122. 

Calonne, 190. 

Calvin, 119. 

Cambrai, league of, 110. 

" peace of, 117. 
Campo Formio, treaty of, 226, 
Capet. Hugh, 31, 36. 
Capetian line, 37. 
Capitularies. 25. 
Carbonari, 272. 
Carloman, 23. 
Caiiovingian line, 23. 
Carnot, 220. 

Cassel, battle of, 72, 165. 
Castiglione, battle of, 224. 
Cateau-Cambresis. peace of, 122. 
Catherine de' Medici, 121, 125. 
Catinat, Marshal, 170. 
Castillon, 93. 
Cavaignac, 282. 
Chalais, Count of, 152. 
Ciialons, battle of, 12. 
Chambord, Count of, 275. 
Champagne, 60. 
Champ de Mars, 24 
Chandos, 81. 
Charlemagne, 23. 
Charles Martel, 20. 
Charles I., xxiv., table in Appendix. 
" II., the Fat, xxiv., table in App. 
" III., the Simple, xxiv., " 

IV., le Bel, 65. 

V., the Wise. 80. 
" VI., the Well-beloved, 83. 
" VII., the Victorious, 88. 
" VIII., 1' Affable, 99. 
" IX., 126. 

X., 136, 272. 
" of Anjou, 60. 

ofValois, 66. 

V. of Spain, 114. 

the Bold, 95. 

the Bad, 76. 
Charlotte Corday, 215. 
Childeric, 22. 
Chivalry, 53. 
Chlodowig, 13. 
Choiseul, 182. 
Christian church, 13. 
Church, the, 14. 
Church building, 142. 
Cinq-Mars, 153. 

Civil-religious wars, period of, 125. 
Clisson, Constable, 84. 
Clootz, Anacharsis, 213. 
Closter-seven, 182. 
Clotaire, 18. 
Clotilda, 17. 
Clovis, 13, 17. 
Colbert, 161. 
Coligny, Admiral, 12G. 
Committee of Public Safety, 215, 
Communes. 46, 53, 204. 
Concini, 148. 



Concordat, 113. 

Condition of society, &c, 32, 52, 68, 75, 

144, 184, 192. 
Conde the Great, 157. 

" Prince of, 126, 128. 
Confederation: of the Rhine, 244. 
Confians, treaty of, 95. 
Constance of Toulouse, 39. 
Consulate, the, 235. 
Continental system, the, 245. 
Corbie, siege of, 154. 
Corday, Charlotte, 215. 
Cordelier Club, 206. 
Corneille, 167. 
Corvee, the, 184. 
Coup d'etat, 282. 
Courtrai, 62. 
Courts of Love, 54. 
Coutras, battle of, 133. 
Crecy, battle of, 74. 
Crespy, treaty of, 118. 
Crevant-sur-Yonne, 89. 
Crevelt, battle of, 182. 
Crillon, Duke of, 136. 
Crimean war, 284. 
Crusade, period of, 43. 

Dagobert, 19. 
Danton, 211. 
D'Arc, Jeanne, 89. 
Dauphin, origin of name, 76, 
Day of the Herrinsrs, 89. 
" Dupesri52. 
" " Barricades, 158. 
Decades, 218. 
Denis, St., 128, 164. 
Descartes, 197. 
Desmoulins, Camille, 201. 
Dettingen, battle of, 180. 
Diana of Poitiers, 119, 121. 
Directory, the, 222. 

Distinguished Men, lists of, 16, 22, 71, 197, 
Dresden, battle of, 256. [265. 

Dreux, battle of, 128. 
Dubois, 174. 
Dumb Captain, 126. 
Dumouriez, 209. 
Dunes, battle of, 160. 
Dunois, bastard of, 93. 
Dupes, the day of the, 152. 

Edward I. of England, 62. 

III. " 76,82. 

the Black Prince, 77. 

IV., 97. 
Eginhard, 35. 

Egypt, campaign in, 59, 228. 
Eleanor, 46. 
Emigrants, the, 10, 205. 
Enghien, Duke of, 157, 239. 
Envoult, to, 74. 
Estaing, Count d\ 188. 
Etampes, Duchess d,', 117, 119. 
Eugene, Prince, 170. 
Eugenie, Empress, 283. 
Eylau, battle of, 245. 

Faineants, Rois, 19. 
Family compact, 182. 
Federation, fete of, 203. 



XXV111 



INDEX. 



Feudalism, 31. 
Fenelon, 167. 
Feuillants, 208. 
Field of cloth of gold, 115. 
Fleurus, battle of, 169. 
Fleury, 178. 
Foix, Gaston de, 111. 
Fontenay, battle of, 27. 
Foutenoy, 180. 
Fornova, 107. 

Franche Comt6 (Free County), 98. 
Francis I., 112. 
" II., 125. 
Franklin, 187. 
Frederick of Prussia, 179. 
Fredegonde, 18. 
Free lances, 80. 
French language, 27. 
Fribourg, battle of, 157. 
treaty of, 114. 
Friedland, battle of, 245. 
Fronde, war of, 158. 

Gabelle, the, 76. 
Gabrielle d'Estrees, 146. 
Garigliano, battle of, 110. 
Gaston, 152. 
Gaul, 9. 

Genevieve, St., 12. 
George II. of England, 180. 
Girondists, the, 208. 
Godfrey de Bouillon, 44. 
Godoy, Don Manuel, 246. 
Grand Design, 147. 
Granson, battle of, 97. 
Grasse, Count de, 188. 
Guesclin, Bertrand du, 81, 82. 
Guinegate, battle of, 98, 111. 
Guise, Francis, Duke of, 121. 
44 Henry, " 1£4. 

Guizot, 277. 

Henry I., 41. 
II., 121. 
" III., 132. 
IV., 136. 

V. , Count de Chambord, 275. 
II., of England, 47,48. 
III. " 59. 

V. " 86,88. 

VI. " 88,93. 
VIH. " 115. 

Henrys, the, 128. 
Herrings, day of, 89. 
Hohenlinden. battle of, 237. 
Hopital, L\ Chancellor, 127, 197. 
Hugh the Great, 30. 

" Capet, 31. 
Huguenots, 125. 
Hundred Days, the, 267. 
Hundred Years War, 72. 

Innocent, Pope, 51. 
Iron mask, 174. 
Italian wars, period of, 106. 
Ivry, battle of, 137. 

Jacobins, the, 206. 
Jacquerie, the, 79. 



Jacques Coeur, 94. 
Jaffa, 229. 

James II. of England, 169. 
Jarnac, battle of, 128. 
Jeanne D'Arc, 89. 
Jemmapes, battle of, 213. 
Jena, battle of, 244. 
Jeunesse Doree, la, 220. 
John, le Bon, 76. 

u of England, 48. 
Josephine, 250. 
July, the three days of, 274. 

Knights, 53. 

Labedoyere, General, 271. 
Ladies' peace, 117. 
Lafayette, General, 188, 204. 
Lamartine, 28L 
Langue cVoc, 51. 
d'oil, 51. 
Languedoc, 47, 51, 57. 
Launay, de, 201. 
Law, John, 176. 
Lawfelt, battle of, 181. 
League, the Catholic, 132. 
" Holy, 110, 117. 
" of the Public Good, 95. 
LeiDsic, battle of, 256. 
Lens, battle of, 158. 
Leo X., Pope, 114. 
Ligny, battle of, 268. 
Limoges, 81. 
Lodi, battle of, 223. 
Lorraine, 28, 183. 
Lothaire, 27. 
Lotharingia, 28. 
Louis I, le Debonnaire, 26. 

" II., le Begue. See table in App. 

" III. See table in Appendix. 

" IV., d'Outremer. See table in App. 

'■ V., le Faineant. See table in App. 

" VI, le Gros, 45. 

" VII., le Jeune, 46. 

" VIII., 51. 

" IX., Saint, 57. 

14 X., le Hutin, 65. 

" XI, 94. 

■" XII., 108. 

44 XIII, 147. 

" XIV., 156. 

" XV., 174. 

44 XVI, 185. 

44 XVII., 231. 

44 XVIIL, 266. 

44 Philippe, 275. 

44 Napoleon, 282. 
Louise of Savoy, 115. 
Luneville, treaty of, 238. 
Louvois, 162. 
Liitzen, battle of, 256. 
Luxemburg, Duke of, 163. 
Luynes, the, 149. 

Macdonald, Ilarshal, 249. 
Madrid, treaty of, 116. 
Magenta, battle of, 286. 
Maid of Orleans, 90. 
Maintenon, Madame do, 168. 
Malesherbes, 186. 



I N D E X . 



XXIX 



Malhies, league of, 111. 

Malplaquet, battle of 172. 

Malta, 232. 

Manclat, 211. 

Manners and customs, 14, 31, 55, 

110, 193, 261. 
Mansard, 167. 
Marat, 211. 
Marcel, 78. 

Marengo, battle of, 236, 
Marie de' Medici, 146. 
Maria Theresa, 179. 
Marie Antoinette, 185, 216. 
Marignano, battle of, 113. 
Martel, Charles, 20. 
Martinet, 163. 
Mary of Burgundy, 98. 
Mary Stuart, 125. 
Massena, General, 237. 
Massilia (Marseilles), 10. 
Massillon, 167. 
Maurepas, 186. 
Mayenne, Duke of, 135. 
Mayors of the palace, 20. 
Maximilian of Austria, 98, 101. 
Mazarin, 158. 
Medici, Catherine de 1 , 125. 

" Marie de', 146. 
Merovingian line, 17. 
Metz, 122, 153. 
Milan, 109, 111. 
Minden, battle of, 182. 
Mirabeau, Count, 207. 
Mississippi scheme, 176. 
Mol ere, 13T. 

Moneontour, battle of, 143. 
Moniteur, 251. 

Mons-en-Puelle, battle of, 63. 
Monsieur, peace of, 143 
Montebello, battle of, 233. 
Montecuculi, 184. 
Mountain, the, 233. 
Montlherry, battle of, 95. 
" castle of, 45. 

Montmorency, Constable, 121. . 
Moore, Sir John, 247. 
Morat, battle of, 97. 
Moreau, General, 225. 
Mount Tabor, battle of, 229. 

Nantes, edict of, 140. 
Naples, 108. 
Napoleon I., 241. 

II., 251. 

Ill, 284. 
National Guard, 201. 
Navarre, king of, 126, 128. 
" Jeanne, 128. 
Henry of, 138. 
Navarino, battle of, 273. 
Necker, 187. 

Neerwinden, battle of, 170. 
Neustria, 13, 19. 
Nice, 44. 

Nime^uen, treaty of, 165. 
Nismes, 11. 

Nordlingen, battle of, 157. 
Normandy, 30, 50. 
Normans, the, 28. 



102. 



Notables, Assembly of, 149, 100. 
Notre Dame, 50. 
Novara, battle of, 109. 

Orange, 11. 
Oriflamme, 40. 
Orleans, 90. 

Louis, Duke of (Louis XII.), 99, 

108. 
Gaston, Duke of, 152. 
Philip, Duke of, 174. 
Philip Egalite, Duke of, 218. 
" Louis Philippe, Duke of, 275. 

Maid of, 89, 90. 
" siege of, 90. 
Ormesson, d', 188. 
Oudenarde, battle of, 172. 

PAIX PERPETUELLE, 113. 

Palatinate, 169. 
Paris, treaty of, 182. 
Parliament, 61. 
Pascal, 167. 
Pavia, battle of. 116. 
Peace of God, 42. 
Peasants, 70, 100, 171, 184. 
Pedro the Cruel, 81. 
Peers of France. 49. 
Pepin d'Heristal, 20. 
Pepin the Short, 23. 
Peroune, 96. 
| Peter the Hermit, 44. 
Petion, 210. 
Philip 1., 42. 

" II., 47. 

" III.,leIIardi, 60. 

" IV.. le Bel, 61. 

" V., le Long, 65. 

" VI., 72. 

" II. of Spain, 139. 

" Egalite, 218. 
Pichegru, General, 220. 
Poitiers, battle of, 77. 

" Diana de, 121. 
Pompadour, Madame de, 181. 
Pouiatowski, Marshal, 257. 
Poussin. 187. 
Pragmatic Sanction, 179. 
Presburg, treaty of, 243. 
Procida, John of, 61. 
Provence, 11, 47. 
Pyramids, battle of, 228. 
Pyrenees, peace of, 160. 

Quadruple Alliance, 175, 277. 
Quatre Bras, battle of, 268. 
Quebec, 182. 
Quentin, St., 122. 

Racine, 167. 

Ramillies, battle of, 172. 

Raucoux, battle of, 180. 

Ravaillac, 147. 

Ravenna, battle of, HI. 

Raymond, 51. 

References for reading, 16, 34, 104, 124, 

142, 196. 
Reformation, 119. 
Reign of Terror, 216. 



XXX 



INDEX 



Renaissance, 120. 

Rene, 106. 

Retz, Cardinal de, 159. 

Revolutionary Tribunal. 215. 

Iiheims, 17, 91. 

Richard, Cceur de Lion, 48. 

" Sans Peur, 41. 
Richelieu, 150. 
Richemont. 94. 
Rivoli, battle of, 225. 
Robert the Magnificent, 41. 
le Diable, 42. 
the Pious, 38. 
" of Artois, 72. 
Robespierre, 213. 
Rochelle, 150. 
Rocroi, battle of, 157. 
Rois Faineants, 19. 
Roland, 209. 
Rollo, £9. 
Rome, 117. 

Rosbach, battle of, 182. 
Roscbecque, " 83. 
Roturiers, 185. 
Rouen, 30. 
Roussillon, 198, 
Russia, invasion of, 249. 
Ryswick, treaty of, 171. 



Saltans, 13. 
Salic law, 66. 
Saracens, 20. 
SaarbriicU, battle of, 289. 
Savoy, Duke of, 146. 

u Louise of, 115. 
Saxe, Marshal, 180. 
Rebomberg, 137. 
Sedan, battle of, 290. 
Seneffe, " 165. 

September massacre, 212. 
Septimania, 23. 
Serfs, 32, 70. 
Seven Years War, 181. 
Sforza, 109. 

Sieyes, Abbe, 191, 232. 
Sintzheim, battle of, 163. 
Sluys, 74. 
Soissons, 18. 

" Count of, 153. 
Solferino, battle of, 286. 
Sorbonne, 155. 
Sorrel, Agnes, 92. 
Spanish succession, 171-2, 229. 
Spurs, battles of, 63, 111. 
Stanislaus Seczynski. 177. 
States-General, 64, 149, 190. 
Steinkirk, battle of, 170. 
Stylus, 69. 
Suger, 71. 
Sully, 144. 
Summary, 14, 22, 31, 67, 101, 123, 135, 

140, 191. 
Suwarrow, 228. 
Swiss, 97, 109, 113. 
Syagrius, 13. 



Taxavera, battle of, 250. 
Talbot, 92, 93. 
Templars, 65. 

Tennis-court oath, 199, 200. 
Terray, Abbe, 184. 
Testry, battle of, £0. 
Thiers, 293. 

Thirty Years War, 154, 157. 
Tie s-etat, 64, 100, 149, 200. 
Tilsit, treaty of, 246. 
Toul, 158. 

Tournaments, 54, 123. 
Tours, battle of, 20. 
Trafalgar, battle of. 243. 
Tremouille, General, 109. 
Tricolor, 201. 
Triple alliance, 162. 
Troubadours, 54. 
Troveres, 54. 
Troyes, treaty of, 88. 
Truce of God, 42. 
Turenne, 159. 
Turgot, 186. 



Ulm, 242. 

University of Paris, 50. 

Utrecht, peace of, 173. 

Valmt, battle of, 213. 
Valois Line, 60. 

" -Angouleme, 112. 

" -Orleans Line, 108. 

" -House, 72. 
Valteline, 154. 
Vassy, massacre of, 127. 
Vauban, 162. 
Vaudois, 119. 
VendSme. battle of, 49. 
" Marshal, 172. 
Verdun, 27, 158. 

treaty of, 27. 
Verneuil, battle of, 89. 
Versailles, 168, 188. 

" storming of, 204. 
Vervins, treaty of, 139. 
Vespers, Sicilian, 61. 
Vienna, treaties of, 179, 249. 
Villars, Marshal, 172, 179. 
Villeroi, 170. 
Vinci, Leonardo da, 120. 
Viouville, battle of, 290. 
Visigoths. 12, 14, 18. 
Vittoria, battle of, 256. 
Vitry, 46. 
Voltaire, 185. 

Wagram, battle of, 248. 
Waldenses, 119. 
Waterloo, battle of, 268. 
Weissenburg, " 290. 
Wellington, 268. 
Westphalia, ireaty of, 158. 
William of Orange, 169. 

kt the Conqueror, 42, 43. 



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